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THE   BOTANICAL  LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

GIFT  OF 

MR.  AND    MRS.  T.   S.   BRANDEGEE. 
1906 


OUTLINES 


LESSONS  IN  BOTANY 


FOR   THE   USE   OF  TEACHERS,    OR   MOTHERS 
STUDYING  WITH   THEIR   CHILDREN 


BY 

JANE   H.   NEWELL 
PART  II.  :   FLOWER  AND  FRUIT 

ILLUSTRATED    BY  H.   P.   SYMMES 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSIT 


BOSTON,  U.S.A. 

GINN   &   COMPANY,   PUBLISHERS 

1892 


Old.. 


COPYRIGHT,  1892, 
BY  JANE   H.   NEWELL. 


ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED. 


TYPOGRAPHY  BY  J.  S.  GUSHING  &  Co.,  BOSTON,  U.S.A. 


PRESSWORK  BY  GINN  &  Co.,  BOSTON,  U.S.A. 


CONTENTS. 


I.    EARLY  BULBOUS  PLANTS 1 

Tulip 3 

Hyacinth 8 

Crocus 11 

Snowdrop 14 

PARTS  OF  THE  FLOWER 18 

II.   HOUSE-PLANTS 21 

House- Geranium 21 

Garden- Nasturtium 26 

CROSS-FERTILIZATION 32 

III.  HOUSE-PLANTS  (continued} 45 

Fuchsia 46 

Abutilon 47 

Azalea 50 

Begonia 53 

THE  STAMENS 57 

IV.  EARLY  SPRING  FLOWERS 65 

Hepatica 65 

Anemone 70 

Marsh- Marigold 73 

iii 


iv  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Meadow- Rue   74 

Bloodroot 77 

Spring-Beauty 80 

THE  PISTIL 81 

V.    EARLY  SPRING  FLOWERS  (continued) 87 

Trailing  Arbutus 87 

Common  Blue  Violet 91 

Houstonia 96 

Dog-Tooth  Violet 98 

Star-Flower 101 

VI.    THE  FOREST  TREES  IN  BLOSSOM 102 

Willow ;  Poplar 104 

Birch ;  Alder 109 

Hazel ;  Hop-Hornbeam ;  Hornbeam 110 

Oak 112 

American  Elm 114 

Red  Maple ;  Norway  Maple 116 

Horsechestnut 119 

Gymnosperms 124 

VII.    BLOSSOMING  FRUIT-TREES  AND  THEIR  ALLIES 133 

Cherry 133 

Apple 134 

Strawberry 135 

Rose 141 

THE  RECEPTACLE 141 

THE  FRUIT 142 

VIII.  LATER  SPRING  FLOWERS 152 

Buttercup 152 

Columbine 155 

Pale  Corydalis 159 


CONTENTS.  V 

PAGE 

Wild  Sarsaparilla 161 

Fringed  Polygala 163 

Barberry 165 

Jack-in-the-Pulpit 167 

Lady's  Slipper 172 

ESTIVATION 182 

IX.  COMMON  WEEDS 185 

Shepherd's  Purse 185 

Chickweed 187 

Ground- Ivy 190 

Lousewort 196 

Meadow-Parsnip  198 

Field-Sorrel 200 

English  Plantain 204 

INFLORESCENCE  205 

X.  EARLY  COMPOSITES 212 

Dandelion 212 

Ox-Eye  Daisy 216 

Purple  Cone-Flower 218 

Robin's  Plantain 220 

Plantain-leaved  Everlasting 220 

Golden  Ragwort 222 

THE  SEED 226 

XL     EARLY  SUMMER  FLOWERS 233 

Locust ;  Laburnum ;  Clover 233 

Pea ;  Bean 238 

Lupine 241 

Iris 243 

Mountain- Laurel 246 

Bush-Honeysuckle . . .    -  248 


VI  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

XII.    EARLY  SUMMER  FLOWERS  (continued} 253 

Convolvulus 253 

Potato ;  Tomato 255 

Butterfly- Weed 259 

Dogbane 263 

Water- Lily 266 

Sweet- Vernal  Grass ;    Meadow-Foxtail ;    Kentucky 

Blue-Grass ;  Couch-Grass 269 

THE  MORPHOLOGY  OF  THE  FLOWER 275 

APPENDIX 283 

INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 369 

INDEX  OF  PLANTS 381 

SIXTY  FAMILIES  OF  FLOWERING  PLANTS .  391 


I. 

EARLY  BULBOUS  PLANTS. 

WHEN  we  come  to  the  study  of  flowers  we 
are  met  at  once  by  a  serious  practical  difficulty, 
the  lack  of  material.  In  New  England  the 
native  spring  flowers  begin  to  appear  late  in 
April,  and  we  wish  to  begin  our  lessons  in 
March.  If  we  wait  until  we  have  plenty  of 
out-of-door  flowers,  there  is  not  time  enough  in 
the  remaining  school  year  to  do  justice  to  our 
subject,  and,  moreover,  the  interesting  specimens 
soon  arrive  so  rapidly,  that  while  we  are  learn- 
ing the  first  simple  principles  of  analysis  some 
of  the  best  examples  of  more  recondite  points 
have  escaped  us. 

But  in  March  the  Snowdrops  and  Crocuses 
are  blooming  out-of-doors,  and  the  windows  of 
our  houses  are  gay  with  Tulips,  Hyacinths,  and 
Daffodils.  These  flowers  are  simple  in  struc- 

i 


2  EARLY  BULBOUS  PLANTS. 

ture,  and  so  large  that  they  are  very  excellent 
for  our  purpose. 

In  my  opinion  it  is  a  mistake  to  avoid  the 
use  of  technical  terms,  even  with  young  pupils, 
but  they  need  not  generally  be  memorized.  A 
written  description  should  be  made  of  each 
flower  studied,  and  the  terms  will  soon  become 
familiar  by  use.  This  is  not  always  the  case, 
however,  for  classes  differ  extraordinarily  in 
their  power  of  learning  technical  words,  and 
the  teacher  will  have  to  use  his  own  judgment 
as  to  the  rapidity  with  which  new  terms  shall 
be  supplied,  and  the  amount  of  memorizing 
necessary. 

It  is  very  desirable  that  the  pupils  should 
learn  to  make  careful  drawings  of  the  flowers 
studied,  with  their  separate  parts. 

It  is  useful  to  have  specimens  of  the  first 
flowers  examined  for  comparison  with  those 
studied  later.  For  this  purpose  growing  plants 
should  be  kept  in  the  schoolroom  and  the  pupils 
encouraged  to  observe  their  growth.1 

1  The  bulbs  of  Tulips,  Hyacinths,  etc.,  should  be  planted  in 
the  fall  in  shallow  pots  or  boxes.  The  soil  should  be  rich,  but 


EABLY  BULBOUS  PLANTS.  3 

Each  pupil  should  be  provided  with  a  mounted 
lens,  a  sharp  penknife,  and  some  needles  in 
wooden  handles.  A  piece  of  mica  to  hold  sec- 
tions will  also  be  useful. 

The  following  directions  indicate  the  way  in 
which  a  simple  flower  may  be  studied  in  order 
to  learn  the  structure  and  arrangement  of  its 
organs.  Each  pupil  should  have  two  specimens 
if  possible. 

TULIP  (Tulipa  Gesneriana).1 

1.  Notice  the  flower  as  a  whole.  Describe 
the  different  sets  of  organs  and  note  their 
arrangement. 

light;  if  it  is  too  heavy  it  may  be  mixed  with  sand.  Tulips, 
Hyacinths,  and  Daffodils  should  be  planted  near  the  surface; 
Crocuses  several  inches  deep.  The  pots  should  be  covered  with 
ashes,  thoroughly  watered  once,  and  placed  in  a  cellar  where 
they  will  be  safe  from  frost.  After  the  shoots  appear  above 
the  ground  the  plants  should  be  taken  into  a  cool  room  and  kept 
well  watered  till  they  blossom.  The  ashes  may  be  removed 
when  the  pots  are  taken  from  the  cellar. 

1  See  Appendix,  p.  287. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  procure  single  flowers.  These  cul- 
tivated plants  vary  greatly,  and  all  sorts  of  queer  freaks  occur. 
Monstrosities  are  instructive  to  trained  botanists,  but  for  begin- 
ners it  is  important  to  have  the  flower  in  its  typical  form. 


4  EARLY  BULBOUS  PLANTS. 

2.  Remove  each  of  the  outer  parts  with  a 
sharp  knife,  noticing  the  order  in  which  each 
part  is  joined  to  the  flower-stalk.     Place  these 
in  a  circle  or  circles,1  as  it  seems  best  to  you. 

3.  Remove  the  slender  stalked  bodies  which 
stand  within  these  outer  colored  parts,  and  place 
them  in  a  circle  or  circles,2  within   your   last 
circle,  each  opposite  to  the  part   to  which   it 
stands  opposite  in  the  flower. 

4.  Separate   the  remaining  organ  from  the 
flower-stalk,  and  place  it  in  the  centre  of  your 
last  circle. 

5.  Look  out  the  names  of  these  parts  in  your 
text-book.3     Draw  one  of  each  kind  and  describe 
them. 

6.  Make  a  cross  section  of  the  ovary.     Place 
it  in  the  centre  of  your  last  circle  instead  of  the 
whole  pistil  (Fig.  1,  a). 

7.  Construct  a  diagram  of  a  Tulip  by  repre- 

1  See  Concerning  a  Few  Common  Plants.     By  G.  L.  Goodale. 
Boston,  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  1888,  p.  43.      Diagrams  like  that 
given  in  the  plate  will  be  found  very  useful. 

2  If  it  is  difficult  for  the  scholars  to  see  that  the  stamens  are 
not  in  a  single  circle,  this  point  need  not  be  noticed. 

3  Gray's  First  Lessons.     Ivison  &  Co., 


OF  THE 

r  UNIVERSITY   I 


OF 


Fro    2.— Tulip.    1.  Whole  plant.     2.  Vertical  section  of  flower.     3.  Pistil  and 
stamens. 


EARLY  BULBOUS  PLANTS. 


senting  the  perianth  leaves  in  cross  section,  the 
stamens  by  a  cross  section  of  the  anthers,  and 
the  pistil  by  a  cross  section  of  the  ovary  (Fig.  1, 6). 
This  is  a  ground  plan  of  the  flower.  If  we 
have  plenty  of  material  let  the  scholars  make 
also  a  vertical  section  of  the  flower. 


FIG.  1. 


8.  Take  another  Tulip,  hold  it  upside  down, 
cut  it  off  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  below  the 
flower,  and  divide  it  in  halves,  beginning  with  the 
stalk.  This  makes  a  vertical  section  (Fig.  2,  2). 
Describe  it,  verifying  the  position  of  each  organ, 
as  you  found  it  before.  Make  a  diagram  repre- 


6  EARLY  BULBOUS  PLANTS. 

senting  all  the  parts  (Fig.  3).  This  vertical  dia- 
gram will  show  the  adnation,  or  union  of  the 
different  circles  with  each  other,  which  we  could 
not  show  in  our  ground  plan.1 

If  the  pupils  have  thus  described  the  Tulip 
in  the  class-room,  they  may  prepare  for  the 
next  recitation  by  rewriting 
their  notes,  using  the  tech- 
nical terms  for  the  parts 
of  the  flower,  and  adding  a 
description  of  the  leaves, 
stem,  root,  and  manner  of 
growth.2 

FIG.  3. -Diagram  of  Tulip  in  Let    ug    gee         fa    t  ex_ 

vertical  section. 

animation  has  taught  us. 
The  Tulip  has  six  flower-leaves  which  make  up 
the  perianth.  They  are  arranged  in  two  alter- 
nating circles,  an  inner  and  an  outer  circle.  This 

1  The  object  of  a  vertical  diagram  is  simply  to  show  the  adna- 
tion of  the  different  circles.    It  must  be  always  taken  in  connec- 
tion with  the  ground  plan,  which  shows  the  arrangement  of  the 
parts  of  the  flower. 

2  The  leaves,  stem,  root,  etc.,  have  been  treated  in  Part  I,  and 
it  is  taken  for  granted  that  the  pupils  are  familiar  with  their 
forms  and  can  describe  them  without  difficulty.    If  this  is  not 
the  case  more  time  must  be  spent  on  each  specimen. 


EARLY  BULBOUS  PLANTS.  7 

was  shown  in  the  arrangement  of  the  flower- 
leaves  on  the  table  and  in  the  diagrams.  It  is 
easily  seen  in  the  bud,  the  three  outer  leaves 
being  folded  outside  the  three  inner  ones.  They 
are  all  separate  from  each  other  and  free  from 
the  other  organs  of  the  flower. 

The  outer  circle  of  flower-leaves  is  named 
the  calyx,  and  each  leaf  is  a  sepal;  the  inner 
circle  is  called  the  corolla,  and  each  leaf  is  a  petal. 
The  sepals  of  the  Tulip  are  a  little  larger  than 
the  petals,  but  they  are  so  much  alike  that  it  is 
better  to  describe  them  both  as  perianth  leaves. 

The  stamens  at  first  appear  to  be  in  a  single 
row,  but  it  can  generally  be  seen  in  a  bud  that 
the  three  stamens  opposite  the  outer  leaves  of 
the  perianth  are  outside  the  other  three,  and 
should  be  placed  in  a  circle  by  themselves.  We 
have  thus  two  circles  of  colored  flower-leaves, 
the  calyx  and  corolla,  two  circles  of  stamens, 
and  a  pistil  in  the  middle,  which  has  three  parts 
called  carpels,  united  to  form  a  three-celled  ovary, 
crowned  by  the  three  stigmas.1  The  cells  of  the 

1  The  number  of  carpels  can  generally  be  determined  by  the 
number  of  cells,  placentse,  styles,  or  stigmas. 


8  EARLY  BULBOUS  PLANTS. 

ovary  alternate  in  position  with  the  inner  row  of 
stamens  (Fig.  1,  &). 

The  whole  flower  is,  therefore,  arranged  on 
the  plan  of  three,  each  circle  of  three  members 
alternating  with  the  one  before.  The  first 
descriptions  of  flowers  will  be  very  simple  ones, 
consisting  almost  entirely  of  the  arrangement 
and  union  of  the  circles  and  the  number  of 
members  in  each  circle.1  A  complete  descrip- 
tion of  each  flower  studied  will  be  found  in  the 
Appendix. 

HYACINTH  (Hyacinihus  orientalis).2 

Let  each  pupil  separate  two  flowers  from  the 
spike. 

1.    Holding  the  flower  upside  down,  make  a 

1  Dr.  Goodale  gives  the  following  questions  for  the  first 
flower  studied :  — 

1.  How  many  parts  are  there  in  each  circle,  and  how  are  they 
arranged? 

2.  How  are  the  parts  of  the  same  circle  united  together? 

3.  How  are  different  circles  united?  —  Concerning  a  Few 
Common  Plants,  p.  45. 

These  points  are  far  more  important  in  classification  than  the 
shape  and  color  of  the  parts. 

2  See  Appendix,  p.  288. 


EARLY   BULBOUS   PLANTS.  9 

vertical  section  dividing  it  in  halves.1  Draw  it, 
make  a  diagram  of  it,  and  describe  the  parts 
and  the  way  in  which  they  are  joined.  How 
does  this  flower  differ  from  the  Tulip  ? 

2.  Make  a  cross  section  of  the  ovary  in  your 
second  flower.  Make  a  ground  plan  of  the 
flower.2 

It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  the  chief  differ- 
ence between  the  Hyacinth  and  the  Tulip  is  that 
the  former  has  a  bell-shaped  perianth,  while  the 
perianth  of  the  latter  is  composed  of  six  distinct 
leaves,  and  that  in  the  Hyacinth  the  stamens 
are  joined  to  the  perianth ;  in  the  Tulip  they 
are  on  the  receptacle,  entirely  free  from  the 
perianth. 

The  manner  of  growth  is  as  follows :  The 
sepals  and  petals  appear  at  first  as  separate 
parts,  but  they  soon  cease  to  grow  at  the  tips, 

1  In  beginning  an  analysis  a  vertical  section  of  the  flower 
should  always  be  made.    The  order  given  for  the  Tulip  was  sim- 
ply a  first  study  of  a  flower. 

2  Eichler,  in  his  Bltithendiagramme,  does  not  indicate  the 
union  of  the  sepals  and  petals  in  his  diagrams,  but  there  is  no 
reason  why  this  should  not  be  done  by  adding  dotted  lines  join- 
ing the  parts. 


10  EARLY  BULBOUS  PLANTS. 

and  are  then  pushed  upward  by  an  intercalary 
ring  of  tissue  which  develops  below  them.  This 
forms  the  bell-shaped  portion  of  the  perianth, 
upon  which  the  separate  leaves  and  the  distinct 
stamens  have  been  raised.  The  various  terms 
in  use  in  our  text-books,  implying  that  the  peri- 
anth leaves  are  united,  as  gamophyllous,  gamosep- 
alous,  gamopetalous,  etc.,  must  not  be  taken  in 
a  strict  sense  to  mean  the  actual  cohesion  of  the 
leaves,  sepals,  or  petals.1 

The  sepals  and  petals  can  be  distinguished  in 
the  Hyacinth,  for  three  of  the  lobes  are  outside 
the  other  three  in  the  bud.  The  stamens  face 
inwards.  The  number  of  cells  in  the  ovary,  and 
the  arrangement  of  the  ovules,  is  the  same  as 
in  the  Tulip.  A  good  way  for  the  pupils  to  ob- 
serve the  ovules,  if  they  have  not  microscopes,  is 
to  slip  their  sections  within  thin  plates  of  mica, 

1  The  coherent  cup-shaped  or  tubular  portion  (of  the  perianth) , 
therefore,  is  not  formed  of  parts  originally  free  and  subsequently 
united  by  their  sides,  but  it  grows  up  from  the  first  as  a  whole 
which  may  be  said  to  be  intercalated  at  the  base  of  the  perianth 
leaves ;  the  leaves  which  were  at  first  free,  are  the  marginal 
teeth  of  the  common  basal  portion.  —  Outlines  of  Classification 
and  Special  Morphology  of  Plants.  By  Dr.  K.  Goebel,  Oxford 
At  the  Clarendon  Press,  1887,  p.  351. 


EARLY   BULBOUS   PLANTS.  11 

which  they  can  hold  up  to  the  light  and  exam- 
ine with  their  lenses. 

The  pistil  of  the  Hyacinth  has  another  part, 
the  style,  which  is  absent  in  the  Tulip. 

The  Tulip  has  a  single  solitary  flower  at  the 
top  of  the  stem ;  the  Hyacinth  has  a  cluster  of 
flowers  on  a  common  stem,  each  borne  on  a 
little  stalk  of  its  own. 

As  to  the  vegetative  characters  of  the  two 
plants,  they  differ  in  that  the  Tulip  has  the  stem 
prolonged  above  the  ground,  bearing  generally 
two  leaves,  while  in  the  Hyacinth  the  stem  is 
not  developed  above  the  bulb  and  there  are  a 
number  of  leaves  rising  directly  from  the  bulb. 
A  vertical  section  will  disclose  the  stem  as  a  flat 
plate  at  the  base  of  the  bulb,  with  the  leaves 
springing  from  it,  and  the  flower-stalk  in  the 
centre. 

Crocus  vernus.1 

If  a  beginner  breaks  off  the  flower  of  the  Cro- 
cus, he  will  be  almost  sure  to  think  that  it  has 
no  ovary.  We  have  to  dig  deep  into  the  earth 

1  See  Appendix,  p.  289. 


12  EARLY  BULBOUS  PLANTS. 

to  find  it,  and  sever  the  flower  very  near  to  the 
bulb.  We  must  take  the  whole  plant  for  study, 
making  a  vertical  section  from  the  very  base 
(Fig.  4,  A,  i).  We  shall  find  that  the  flower  has 
the  leaves  of  the  perianth  united  like  the  Hya- 
cinth, but  that  the  shape  of  the  flower  is  very 
different,  the  perianth  of  the  Crocus  having  a 
long,  slender  tube.  It  differs  from  both  the 
Tulip  and  the  Hyacinth,  in  having  the  base  of 
the  perianth  joined  to  the  ovary,  and  in  pos- 
sessing only  three  stamens. 

The  stigmas  of  the  Crocus  are  petal-like,  and 
of  a  bright  yellow  color.  Saffron  is  obtained 
from  the  stigmas  of  another  species  (Crocus  sati- 
vus).  The  stigmas  are  dried  and  pressed  into 
cakes.  In  England  Saffron  is  the  common  name 
of  the  Crocus. 

After  the  Crocus  has  flowered,  the  leaves, 
which  have  been  rolled  inward  from  both  mar- 
gins, expand  and  appear  much  broader  than 
before  (Fig.  4,  A,  2).  The  whole  leaf -surf  ace  is 
needed  to  make  a  new  store  of  food  for  the 
leaves  and  blossoms  of  the  following  year.  This 
store  of  new  food  is  deposited  in  the  base  of  the 


FIG   4. -A    Crocus:    1.  Whole  plant.     2.  Leaf  after  flowering.     3.  Stamens. 
4    Vertical  section  of  ovary.    5.  Pod.    (The  dotted  line  represents 
the  level  of  the  ground.)     B.  Snowdrop:  1.  Whole  plant.    2.  Se 
tionofbulb.    3.  Stamens.    4.  Diagram  (Eichler). 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  J 

OF 


EARLY  BULBOUS  PLANTS.  13 

stem  just  above  the  old  bulb,  or  corm,1  as  it  is 
properly  called,  and  forms  a  new  corm  there 
(Fig.  4).  As  this  corm  is  above  the  old  one  the 
plant  of  next  year  will  not  be  so  deep  in  the 
ground,  and  in  a  few  years  it  will  become  neces- 
sary to  take  up  and  replant  the  corms,  or  the 
stock  will  run  out. 

The  bracts  of  the  Crocus  ought  to  be  noticed ; 
three  sheathe  the  flower  itself,  and  three  others 
enclose  the  whole  growth  of  the  season,  leaves, 
flower,  and  all. 

The  pod  of  the  Crocus  reaches  the  surface  of 
the  ground  when  ripe,  and  often  rises  above  it 
(Fig.  4,  A9  5).  We  can  see  the  top  of  the  large 
capsule  peeping  above  the  ground.  The  advan- 
tage of  maturing  its  seed  underground  is  not 
exactly  apparent  in  the  Crocus.  The  reason  has 
been  given  that  coming  so  early  in  the  spring 
the  seeds  are  kept  safe  from  frost.  But  we  have 
other  as  early  flowers  that  dispense  with  such 
protection,  as  the  Snowdrop,  for  instance.  There 
is  an  autumn  Crocus  (C.  nudiflorus),  where  the 
seeds  lie  buried  all  winter.  In  the  spring  the 

1  See  Outlines,  Part  I,  p.  51. 


14  EARLY   BULBOUS    PLANTS. 

stalk  of  the  pod  elongates  and  brings  the  cap- 
sule to  the  surface  of  the  ground,  where  it 
arrives  about  the  beginning  of  the  haying  sea- 
son, and  when  the  capsules  discharge  the  seeds 
are  scattered  far  and  wide.  Our  spring  Crocus, 
however,  matures  its  seeds  at  once. 

SNOWDROP  (Galanthus  nivdlis).1 

In  this  flower  the  two  circles  of  the  perianth, 
calyx  and  corolla,  differ  in  shape  and  coloring. 
The  outer  flower-leaves  are  larger,  and  are  pure 
white,  the  inner  are  notched  and  spotted  with 
green.  This  is  the  reverse  of  the  usual  color- 
ing, as  in  most  flowers  the  calyx  is  green. 

The  base  of  the  perianth  is  joined  to  the 
ovary,  but  it  differs  from  the  Crocus  in  having 
the  stamens  inserted  on  a  disk  on  top  of  the 
ovary,  instead  of  on  the  perianth.  Many  botan- 
ists regard  such  ovaries  as  enclosed  in  a  hollow 
receptacle,  and  this  seems  to  be  the  best  expla- 
nation in  the  case  of  the  Snowdrop.  Others 
regard  the  calyx  tissue  as  consolidated  with  the 
ovary  into  a  single  green  body.  We  cannot 

1  Appendix,  p.  290. 


EAKLY   BULBOUS   PLANTS.  15 

judge  of  the  merits  of  the  case,  and  will  simply 
describe  the  petals  and  stamens  as  "  inserted  on 
a  disk  on  top  of  the  ovary  "  (epigynous). 

Notice  the  nodding  position  of  the  flower  and 
the  cleft  bract  from  which  it  nods  (Fig.  4,  B,  i).  A 
diagram,  both  in  vertical  and  cross  sections,  should 
be  made  of  every  flower  studied  (Fig.  4,  B,  4). 

The  flowers  of  Trillium  are  excellent  to  com- 
pare with  the  Tulip  and  Snowdrop.  They  can 
be  forced  in  a  greenhouse  by  bringing  in*  the 
plants  in  the  fall.  Trillium  grandiflorum  is  a 
striking  example  of  a  perianth  where  the  outer 
circle  resembles  the  inner  in  shape  and  veining, 
but  differs  in  the  texture  and  color.  If  no  fresh 
flowers  can  be  obtained,  pressed  specimens  will 
answer  very  well.  The  Trillium  is  similar  to 
the  Tulip,  being  arranged  in  circles  of  three 
members  each,  but  it  differs  in  having  the  outer 
leaves  of  the  perianth  green. 

Other  flowers  that  may  be  compared  with 
those  we  have  studied,  or  may  replace  them,  are 
Lilies,  Scilla,  Amaryllis,  Narcissus  (N.  poeticus), 
Jonquil  (N.  Jonquilla),  Daffodil  (N.  Pseudo- 
Narcissus),  and  Freesia. 


16 


EAKLY  BULBOUS  PLANTS. 


The  various  species  of  Narcissus  will  puzzle 
the  pupils  by  the  crown  (corona),  which  they  will 
certainly  describe  as  a  corolla.  This  crown  is  an 
outgrowth  from  the  perianth.  In  some  flowers, 
as  Narcissus  poeticus,  it  is  an  insignificant  little 
cup.  In  the  Jonquil  it  is  longer  than  the 
perianth. 

Let  us  put  very  brief  descriptions  of  the 
flowers  we  have  studied  side  by  side. 


PISTIL. 

3  carpels,  united, 
ovary  superior. 


PISTIL. 

3  carpels,  united, 
ovary  superior. 


PISTIL. 

3  carpels,  united, 
ovary  inferior. 


TULIP. 

PEKIANTH. 

STAMENS. 

6  leaves,  distinct, 
free  from  ovary. 

6,  distinct, 
free. 

PERIANTH. 

Bell-shaped,  6-lobed, 
free  from  ovary. 


PERIANTH. 

Funnel-shaped,  G-lobed, 
joined  to  ovary. 


PERIANTH. 
6  leaves,  distinct, 
joined  to  ovary. 


HYACINTH. 

STAMENS. 
6,  distinct, 
joined  to  perianth. 

CROCUS. 

STAMENS. 
3,  distinct, 
joined  to  perianth. 


SNOWDROP. 

STAMENS.  PISTIL. 

C,  distinct,  3  carpels,  united, 

on  an  epigynous  disk,  ovary  inferior. 


EARLY  BULBOUS  PLANTS.  17 

When  the  ovary  is  free  it  is  called  superior, 
when  it  is  joined  to  the  calyx  it  is  inferior. 

We  wish  to  show  the  place  that  these  flowers 
hold  in  our  scheme  of  classification.  In  the 
Appendix  will  be  found  a  schedule  showing  the 
general  arrangement  of  flowering  plants  as  clas- 
sified in  our  Manual.  The  pupils  are  already 
familiar  with  the  secondary  characters  by  which 
they  can  place  the  plants  among  the  monoco- 
tyledons, the  parallel  veining  of  the  leaves, 
and  the  monocotyledonous  type  of  the  structure 
of  the  stem.1  Our  flowers  evidently  belong  to 
the  first  of  the  three  divisions  of  the  monoco- 
tyledons (petaloideous]  for  they  have  colored 
petals. 

The  Tulip  and  Hyacinth  are  put  at  once  into 
the  Lily  family  (I/iliacece),  because  the  ovary  is 
superior,  the  stamens  six  in  number,  and  the 
perianth  leaves  colored  alike.2  The  Crocus  be- 
longs to  one  of  the  families  with  inferior  ovary. 
As  it  has  three  stamens  we  put  it  into  the  Iris 
family  (Iridacece),  and  the  Snowdrop,  with  infe- 

1  Outlines,  Part  I,  pp.  34,  119. 

2  The  Trillium  is  an  exception,  having  green  sepals. 


18  EARLY  BULBOUS  PLANTS. 

rior  ovary  and  six  stamens,  we  place    in   the 
Amaryllis  family  (Amaryllidacece). 

It  must  be  understood,  however,  that  only  the 
best  known  and  most  important  of  our  native 
families  are  placed  in  this  schedule. 

PARTS  OF  THE  FLOWER. 

All  these  flowers  have  calyx,  corolla,  stamens, 
and  pistil.  They  are  therefore  called  C07n2)lete. 
They  are  also  regular,  the  members  of  the  same 
circle  being  alike  in  shape  and  size,  and  symmet- 
rical, having  the  same  numbers  of  members  in 
each  circle.1 

The  calyx  and  corolla  taken  together  are 
called  the  floral  envelopes,  or  the  perianth.  The 
calyx  is  the  outer  circle,  the  corolla  the  inner 
circle  of  the  perianth.  The  parts  of  the  calyx 
are  called  sepals;  the  parts  of  the  corolla  are 
petals. 

A  stamen  consists  of  a  filament,  or  stalk,  and 

1  The  term  symmetrical  is  used  without  taking  the  pistil  into 
account.  This  term  is  employed  by  German  authors  in  a  differ- 
ent sense.  It  is  applied  to  a  flower  which  can  be  divided  into 
similar  halves. 


EARLY  BULBOUS  PLANTS.  19 

an  anther,  which  holds  a  substance  called  pollen. 
The  anther  is  the  only  essential  part  of  a  sta- 
men. When  the  filament  is  absent,  the  anther 
is  sessile.  Anthers  are  generally  two-celled.  In 
all  the  flowers  we  have  examined  they  are  two- 
celled  and  split  throughout  their  whole  length 
to  discharge  their  pollen  (longitudinal  dehis- 
cence),  except  in  the  Snowdrop,  in  which  the 
anther  splits  only  a  little  way  and  discharges 
through  a  small  slit  near  the  top. 

Anthers  may  be  fixed  by  the  back  (dorsifixed), 
like  the  Crocus,  or  by  the  base  (basifixed),  like 
the  Tulip.  When  they  are  fixed  by  the  back 
they  may  face  inward  (introrse),  like  the  Hya- 
cinth, or  outward  (extrorse),  like  the  Crocus,  or 
they  may  be  fastened  in  the  middle  and  tilt 
back  and  forth,  like  the  Lily,  in  which  case  they 
are  versatile. 

The  pistil  occupies  the  centre  of  the  flower. 
It  is  made  up  of  parts,  called  carpels,  just  as  the 
calyx  is  made  up  of  sepals  and  the  corolla  of 
petals.  In  all  the  flowers  we  have  thus  far 
studied  there  are  three  carpels,  and  the  carpels 
are  united. 


20  EARLY  BULBOUS  PLANTS. 

When  such  a  pistil  is  complete  it  consists  of 
an  ovary,  a  style,  and  a  stigma. 

The  ovary  holds  the  ovules,  which  are  to  be- 
come seeds.  In  the  flowers  we  have  studied  the 
ovules  are  all  joined  to  the  centre  of  the  ovary 
(central placenta),  in  two  rows  in  each  cell. 

The  style  is  not  an  essential  part  of  the  pistil. 
It  is  absent  in  the  Tulip,  and  the  stigmas  are 
sessile. 

The  stigma  is  the  part  of  the  pistil  which 
receives  the  pollen,  as  will  be  explained  in  the 
following  chapter. 

The  receptacle  is  the  top  of  the  stem  to  which 
all  the  parts  of  the  flower  are  joined. 

Grays  Lessons,  228-238. 


II. 

COMMON   HOUSE-PLANTS. 

IF  we  have  begun  our  flower-lessons  in  March, 
it  is  still  too  soon  in  New  England  to  find  out- 
of-door  material  for  study,  and  we  will  treat  of 
some  house-plants  before  passing  to  the  early 
spring  flowers. 

One  of  our  most  constant  companions  is  the 
House-Geranium.  It  requires  very  little  care,  is 
not  attacked  by  insects,  and  rewards  us  for 
a  slight  trouble  by  an  abundance  of  blossoms. 

HOUSE-GERANIUM  (Pelargonium  zonale).1 

The  pupils  should  make  a  brief  description  of 
the  flower,  noticing  in  particular  the  number 
of  parts  in  each  circle,  and  the  union  of  parts  of 
the  same  circle  and  of  different  circles.  A  ver- 

1  See  Appendix,  p.  293.  The  species  of  Pelargonium  have 
been  so  much  mixed  in  cultivation,  that  it  is  difficult  to  find  one 
of  the  original  type,  and  all  sorts  of  variations  must  be  ex- 
pected. 

21 


22 


COMMON   HOUSE-PLANTS. 


tical  section  is  always  necessary.  A  bud,  or 
just  opening  flower,  is  always  best  for  the  ex- 
amination of  the  anthers.  The  stamens  may 
give  some  trouble,  as  some  of  them  are  without 
anthers  and  sometimes. all  are  sterile. 

Besides  this  description  of  the  flower,  the 
pupils  should  write  out  all  that  they  can  observe 
about  the  plant,  its  manner  of  growth,  its  root, 
when  this  is  possible,  its  stem,  and  foliage.  As 
new  plants  are  studied,  the  descriptions  should 
be  enlarged  from  lesson  to  lesson,  until  they 
finally  become,  after  many  lessons,  as  full  as 
those  given  in  the  Appendix.  This  will  supply 
quite  enough  work  to  be  done  out  of  school,  as 
soon  as  plenty  of  specimens  can  be  obtained.  All 
this  work  should  be  kept  carefully  in  note-books 
with  the  opposite  page  left  blank  for  corrections, 
and  as  much  drawing  as  possible  should  be  done. 

Here  is  a  very  simple  description  of  the 
House-Geranium. 


CALYX.  COROLLA. 
5  sepals,  dis-  5  petals,  dis- 
tinct (pnlysep-  tinct  (-polypet- 
alous),  free.  aZows),  free. 


STAMENS. 
10,  7  with  an- 
thers, filaments 
united  (vnona- 
delphous),  free. 


PISTIL. 
5  carpels, 
united  (syn- 
carpous'),  free. 


COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS.  23 

How  does  this  flower  differ  from  the  Tulip  ? 

The  most  obvious  difference  is  that  the  parts 
are  in  fives  instead  of  threes.  Monocotyledons 
never  have  their  flowers  arranged  on  the  plan 
of  five.  Another  noticeable  distinction  is  that 
the  calyx  is  green,  while  the  inner  circle,  the 
corolla,  is  colored.  In  the  Tulip  both  are  col- 
ored.1 

Therefore,  in  describing  the  Geranium  we 
use  the  words  calyx  and  corolla  instead  of  peri- 
anth. The  latter  word  is  only  used  when  there 
is  no  obvious  distinction  between  the  circles,  as 
in  the  Tulip,  or  when  a  flower  has  its  nearest 
connections  among  those  where  no  distinction 
exists,  as  in  the  Snowdrop  and  Trillium. 

Let  us  now  examine  some  points  in  the 
growth  of  the  House-Geranium. 

Under  favorable  circumstances  it  is  a  shrub. 
The  small  plants  in  our  houses  are  not  woody, 
but  if  we  see  a  plant  that  is  several  years  old  we 
shall  see  that  it  is  woody. 

The  leaves  are  sometimes  opposite,  sometimes 
alternate,  but  usually  alternate.  They  have 

1  The  word  colored  is  used  to  denote  any  color  except  green. 


24  COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS. 

stipules,  joined  to  the  stem,  which  soon  drop  off 
or  become  dry  and  scaly. 

The  inflorescence  is  peculiar.  The  flower- 
stalk  grows  apparently  on  the  side  of  the  stem 
opposite  a  leaf.  We  learned  in  a  former  section 
(Part  I,  p.  57)  that  buds  were  either  terminal  or 
axillary,  and  flower-buds  are  no  exception  to 
this  rule.  How,  then,  are  we  to  account  for  the 
position  of  the  flower-cluster  here  ?  If  it  is  pos- 
sible to  examine  a  very  young  bud,  we  shall  find 
that  it  really  terminates  the  stem,  but  by  the 
more  vigorous  growth  of  the  branch  in  the  axil 
of  the  neighboring  leaf  it  is  thrust  aside.  It  is 
an  analogous  case  to  the  flower-scar  of  Horse- 
chestnut,  which  we  studied  among  the  buds.1 

The  flower-cluster  is  surrounded  by  a  circle  of 
bracts,  which  envelop  the  whole  cluster  when 
young,  and  answer  to  the  scales  of  a  leaf-bud. 
The  number  of  flowers  in  the  cluster  varies. 

The  seeds  of  House-Geranium  are  very  inter- 
esting. They  do  not  often  develop  in  the  house. 
The  five  carpels  composing  the  pistil  separate, 
when  ripe,  from  a  central  column,  which  is  a 

1  Outlines,  I,  p.  61. 


COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS.  25 

prolongation  of  the  receptacle.  The  carpels  split 
apart  from  below  upward,  and  remain  hanging 
by  their  styles,  till  a  puff  of  wind  or  some  dis- 
turbance detaches  them  and  they  are  carried 
away,  often  quite  a  distance  from  the  plant. 

Before  leaving  the  parent,  the  long  style  of 
the  carpel  has  become  twisted  into  a  spiral, 
by  the  contraction  in  drying  of  the  outer  fibres. 
The  upper  end  of  the  style  remains  straight, 
forming  a  long  awn.  The  middle  of  the  style 
is  lined  with  a  thick  brush  of  soft,  white  hairs, 
which  form  a  sort  of  parachute  when  the  twisting 
takes  place,  and  add  greatly  to  the  power  of ^Ehe 
fruit  to  fly  to  a  distance  from  the  parent  plant. 

When  the  dry  fruit  is  placed  on  a  damp  sur- 
face the  contracted  fibres  absorb  water  and 
begin  at  once  to  elongate,  causing  the  spiral  to 
uncoil.  If  the  fruit  has  fallen  in  a  favorable 
position,  the  awn  soon  becomes  pressed  against 
the  earth  and  the  carpel  rises  in  the  form  of  an 
arch.  The  end  containing  the  seed  becomes 
pointed  downward,  and  the  further  uncoiling 
acts  like  a  corkscrew  and  pushes  the  seed  into 
the  ground.  The  thick  end  of  the  fruit  holding 


26  COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS. 

the  seed  is  covered  with  fine,  upward-pointing 
bristles,  so  that  it  is  easy  for  the  seed  to  enter 
the  ground,  but  impossible  for  it  to  be  with- 
drawn. As  soon  as  the  ground  dries  the  carpel 
begins  to  coil  up,  and  with  successive  changes 
of  moisture  the  process  is  repeated  again  and 
again. 

The  Erodium,  a  near  relative  of  the  Pelargo- 
nium, has  fruits  in  which  this  arrangement  is 
much  more  perfect,  as  it  has  more  turns  in  its 
spiral,  and  is  thus  forced  downwards  with  more 
force.  I  have  seen  a  fruit  of  Erodium  bury 
itself  in  three  minutes.  If  the  fruit  of  Pelar- 
gonium be  left  for  a  day  in  loose,  damp  soil, 
however,  it  will  often  succeed  in  wriggling  itself 
partially  underground. 

GARDEN  NASTURTIUM  (Tropceolum  mqjus).1 

In  the  introduction  to  the  first  part  of  this 
book  it  was  recommended  that  Tropaeolum  seeds 
should  be  planted  in  pots  and  allowed  to  grow 
over  a  sunny  window  in  the  schoolroom.  If  this 
has  been  done,  the  teacher  will  now  have  blos- 

1  Appendix,  p.  291. 


COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS.  27 

soms.  These  flowers  can  often  be  obtained  in 
greenhouses,  but  they  are  easily  grown  in  the 
house,  and  one  has  only  to  plant  the  seeds  early 
in  the  winter,  and  to  keep  the  plants  well 
watered  in  a  moderately  cool  room,  in  order  to 
have  sufficient  material  for  a  large  class.  The 
young  seedlings  should  always  be  transplanted 
from  the  pot  in  which  they  have  germinated. 

Let  the  pupils  begin  the  study  of  the  flower 
as  usual  by  making  a  vertical  section.  Com- 
pare the  flower  with  that  of  the  House-Gera- 
nium. 

The  parts  are  also  in  fives,  at  least  as~to  the 
floral  envelopes,  but  the  calyx  has  five  lobes 
(gamosepalous]  instead  of  five  separate  sepals.1 

1  "  The  proper  term  for  a  corolla  or  a  calyx,  the  leaves  of 
which  are  more  or  less  coalescent  into  a  tube  or  cup,  is  gamo- 
petalous  for  such  a  corolla,  gamosepalous  for  the  calyx;  these 
terms  meaning  united  petals  or  sepals.  The  older  and  mislead- 
ing names  monopetalous  or  monosepalous,  although  current  up  to 
a  recent  day,  should  be  discontinued."  Gray's  Structural  Botany, 
p.  244. 

The  same  objection  applies  to  the  use  of  the  term  polypeta- 
lous  for  which  the  term  choripetalous  is  sometimes  substituted. 

But  these  terms  are  misleading  also,  as  the  sepals  and  petals 
are  not  united,  but  only  raised  on  a  subsequent  ring  of  tissue. 
Masters,  in  Botany  for  Beginners,  London,  1889,  tries  to  get 


28 


COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS. 


This  follows  from  a  method  of  growth,  like  that 
of  the  corolla  of  the  Hyacinth  (p.  9).  The  sta- 
mens are  eight  in  number.  The  pistil  has  three 
carpels.  These  are  joined  together,  but  when 
the  pistil  is  ripe  they  split  apart  into  three  closed 
nutlets,  which  are  generally  called  seeds  (Fig. 
5,  6).  The  real  seeds  are  inside,  one  in  each  cell.1 
Let  us  put  brief  descriptions  of  the  Pelargonium 
and  Tropaeolum  side*  by  side. 

PELARGONIUM    ZONALE. 

CALYX.  COHOLLA.  STAMENS.  PISTIL. 

5  sepals,  5  petals,  10,  7  perfect,  5  carpels, 

polysepa-  polypetalous,         .   monadel-  syncarpous, 

lous,  free.          free.  phous,  free.  free. 


TROP^EOLUM    MAJUS. 

CALYX. 

COROLLA. 

STAMENS. 

PISTIL. 

5  sepals, 
garaosepa- 
lous,  free. 

5  petals, 
polypetalous, 
joined  to  calyx. 

8  stamens,  dis- 
tinct, joined  to 
base  of  calyx. 

3  carpels, 
syncarpous, 
free. 

over  the  difficulty  by  coining  a  new  term,  inseparate,  to  describe 
the  sepals  and  petals  of  a  gamopetalons  calyx,  but  as  the  dic- 
tionary defines  inseparate  as  "  united,"  it  is  hard  to  see  what  is 
gained  thereby.  It  seems  to  me  quite  impossible  to  make  our 
descriptive  terms  thoroughly  scientific. 

1  Other  interesting  points  about  the  Tropa3olum  will  be  found 
treated  in  Part  I,  pp.  108,  109,  and  130. 


FIG.  5.  —  Garden-Nasturtium.  1.  Front  view  of  flower.  2.  Side  view 
of  flower.  3.  Vertical  section.  4.  Flower-bud.  5.  Leaf. 
6.  Fruit.  7,  8,  9.  Stamens  and  style  in  successive  stages. 
10.  Diagram  (Eichler). 


/T  OF  THE 

(  UNIVERSITY    I 


OF 

-OF 


COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS.  29 

If  we  wish  to  place  these  flowers  on  our  sched- 
ule we  shall  find  that  they  belong  in  the  first 
division,  since  they  are  dicotyledons  and  polypet- 
alous. 

The  stamens  and  petals  of  the  Pelargonium 
are  inserted  under  the  ovary,  while  those  of  the 
Tropaeolum  are  united  with  the  very  base  of 
the  calyx,  except  two  petals,  which  are  inserted 
higher  up.  We  should,  therefore,  place  the  first 
flower  in  the  first  group  on  the  schedule,  while 
we  should  naturally  expect  to  find  the  other  in 
the  perigynous  group.  But  the  Tropseolum  is 
an  exception  to  most  of  its  relations  in  this  re- 
spect, and  belongs  to  the  Geranium  family,  which 
is  classed  as  hypogynous. 

There  are  no  easy  constant  characters  to  dis- 
tinguish Geraniacece.  It  is  composed  of  several 
strongly  marked  tribes,  which  are  described  by 
German  authors  as  separate  families.  It  is  a 
difficult  matter  to  decide  on  the  limits  of  species, 
genera,  and  families,  and  the  doctors  themselves 
disagree. 

It  used  to  be  thought  that  species  did  not  vary. 
We  may  still  read  in  Wood's  Botany:  "When 


30  COMMON   HOUSE-PLANTS. 

He  called  plants  into  existence  in  their  specific 
forms,  He  endowed  each  with  the  power  of  per- 
petuating its  own  kind  and  no  other,  so  that 
they  have  descended  to  us  endowed  with  the 
same  character  and  properties  as  at  the  begin- 
ning. When,  therefore,  the  student  has  formed 
acquaintance  with  any  individual  plant,  he  is 
also  acquainted  with  all  other  individuals  belong- 
ing to  the  same  species."  1 

Against  this  we  may  quote  Dr.  Gray :  "  He 
(the  naturalist)  can  only  ejaculate  the  wish  that 
this  ideal  vegetable  kingdom  was  the  one  he  had 
to  deal  with."  2 

No  two  individuals  are  exactly  alike.  Some  • 
times  the  descendants  of  a  single  plant  will  differ 
so  much  that  they  would  be  thought  distinct 
species  if  we  did  not  know  they  had  a  common 
origin.  Such  forms,  when  they  become  fixed, 
are  called  varieties.  It  is  by  choosing  out  and 
cultivating  varieties  that  we  have  obtained  so 
many  different  colors  of  Roses  and  Chrysan- 

1  Class-Book  of  Botany.  Alphonso  Wood.  A.  S.  Barnes,  New 
York,  p.  165. 

-  Natural  Science  and  Religion.  By  Asa  Gray.  Charles  Scrib* 
ner's  Sons,  New  York,  1880,  p.  41. 


COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS.  31 

themums,  for  instance.  The  word  chrysanthe- 
mum means  golden  flower,  but  now  we  have 
red  and  white  ones  also.  Our  modern  view 
supposes  that  species  have  been  developed  in  a 
similar  way  from  a  common  ancestor  and  that 
"  Classification,  so  far  as  it  is  -natural,  expresses 
real  relationship.  Classes,  orders,  tribes,  etc., 
are  the  earliest  or  main  and  successful  branches  of 
the  genealogical  tree ;  genera  are  later  branches ; 
species  the  latest  definitely  developed  ramifica- 
tions ;  varieties  the  developing  buds."  1 

To  classify  these  groups  wide  knowledge  is 
necessary  and  even  trained  judgments  differ. 

For  a  beginner  to  place  the  Pelargonium  and 
Tropseolum  in  the  right  family  it  would  be  nec- 
essary to  use  an  artificial  key,  such  as  the  one 
with  which  Gray's  Manual  is  provided.  But  it 
is  a  mistake  to  take  the  key  into  use  until  the 
pupil  has  learned  to  use  his  eyes  intelligently 
and  is  familiar  with  the  ordinary  terms,  and 
even  then  he  should  never  attempt  to  look  out 

1  Gray's  Structural  Botany,  p.  329.  Read  the  whole  chapter 
on  the  "  Principles  of  Classification."  The  teacher  is  recom- 
mended to  read  also  Darwin's  Origin  of  Species. 


32  COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS. 

a  flower  until  he  has  first  made  a  description  of 
it.  Therefore,  he  will  have  to  be  told  the  place 
of  these  flowers  on  our  schedule.  Most  families, 
however,  are  distinguished  by  more  obvious  char- 
acters than  the  Geranium  family,  and  these 
ought  to  be  learned  with  every  flower  studied, 
even  after  the  key  has  been  taken  into  use.  We 
may  go  on  using  the  key  for  a  year,  and  after 
that  time  have  no  more  idea  where  to  place  a 
new  flower  than  at  first.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
we  learn  the  distinguishing  characters  of  each 
order  that  we  study,  and  the  place  that  it  holds 
in  a  Natural  System,  we  learn  something  of  the 
real  affinities  of  the  flower. 

The  Tropaeolum  is  very  good  for  the  study  of 
cross-fertilization,  and  it  will  add  much  interest 
to  the  study  of  flowers  if  we  begin  early  to 
notice  their  various  contrivances  for  that  end. 

CROSS-FERTILIZATION  . 

Why  is  it  that  we  must  keep  our  Sweet  Peas 
or  Nasturtiums  cut  if  we  wish  the  plants  to  con- 
tinue to  flower  ? 

This  question  is  one  that  will  set  the  pupils 


COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS.  33 

thinking,  and  they  will  probably  perceive,  after 
a  little  thought,  that  if  the  plant  is  allowed  to 
go  to  seed  it  will  the  sooner  stop  flowering. 
This  indicates  that  the  purpose  of  the  flower  is 
to  produce  seed,  which  is  to  perpetuate  the 
plant  in  its  offspring .  In  fact,  every  part  of 
the  flower  is  adapted  for  this  end.  This  is  the 
key  to  unlock  the  mysteries  of  their  varied  forms. 

Ask  the  pupils  what  organs  are  necessary  to 
this  object.  They  will  think  at  once  of  the 
pistil,  which  can  readily  be  seen  to  develop  into 
the  fruit,  but  it  is  probable  that  the  teacher  will 
here  be  obliged  to  explain  the  action  of  the 
pollen  on  the  ovule,  in  order  to  show  the  neces- 
sity of  the  stamens. 

A  grain  of  pollen  falling  upon  a  mature 
stigma  sends  out  a  slender  tube,  which  grows 
down  through  the  style  until  it  reaches  the 
ovary  and  enters  an  ovule  there.  By  the  mix- 
ture of  the  protoplasm  in  the  pollen  grain  with 
that  of  the  ovule,  fertilization  is  effected  and  the 
embryo  begins  to  form.1 

1  Gray's  Botanical  Text-Book,  Vol.  II.  Physiological  Botany. 
George  L.  Gooclale,  p.  426. 


34  COMMON   HOUSE-PLANTS. 

Organs,  as  the  scholars  have  already  learned, 
are  the  parts  of  a  living  being  that  do  definite 
kinds  of  work.1  Since  the  parts  of  a  flower 
necessary  to  the  production  of  seed  are  the 
stamens  and  pistil,  these  are  the  essential  organs. 
They  are  essential  to  the  purpose  of  the  flower ; 
in  fact,  they  may  really  form  the  flower  itself. 
Our  word  perianth,  which  means  "  around  the 
flower,"  indicates  that  the  floral  envelopes  are  as 
truly  accessory  parts  as  the  bracts.  Does  a 
flower  produce  seed  if  it  has  only  one  of  these 
essential  organs  ?  If  the  pupils  think  not,  how 
can  they  account  for  the  acorns  of  the  Oak, 
which  develop  from  a  flower  possessing  no 
stamens  ?  The  study  of  the  "  pussies  "  of  Wil- 
low, which  blossom  in  early  spring,  will  be  very 
useful  in  this  connection,  although  for  purposes 
of  convenience  they  are  placed  in  a  later  chapter. 
Indeed,  the  Willow  is  a  very  excellent  flower  to 
begin  our  lessons  upon,  for  the  reason  that  it 
shows  a  flower  reduced  to  its  simplest  terms, 
and  will  not  impress  the  pupils  with  the  erro- 
neous idea  that  showy  floral  envelopes  constitute 
a  flower. 

1  Outlines,  Part  I,  p.  2. 


COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS.  35 

The  question  now  naturally  arises  why  a 
flower  should  have  any  other  parts  than  its  es- 
sential organs,  and  this  can  be  partially  an- 
swered by  an  examination  of  our  flower. 

Examine  specimens  of  Tropaeolum  in  all  stages, 
from  the  bud  up  to  the  withered  flower,  in  order 
to  answer  the  following  questions :  — 

1.  What  is  the  position  of  the  stamens  before 
discharging  ?     While  discharging  ?     Do  they  all 
discharge  at  once  ?     While  discharging,  what  is 
their  position  with  reference  to  the  spur  ? 

2.  What  is  the  condition  of  the  style  while 
the  stamens  are  discharging  and  after  they  have 
discharged  ? 

3.  What  is  the  use  of  the  spur  ? 

4.  To  what  point  do   the  dark  lines  on  the 
calyx  and  corolla  converge  ? 

5.  Does  the  flower  stand  erect  ?    Is  there  any 
reason  why  it  would  be  injurious  to  do  so  ?     On 
which  petals  is  the  fringe  ? 

A  bud,  just  opening,  will  show  the  stamens 
all  bent  downward  (declined),  in  the  position 
represented  in  Fig.  5,  7.  In  a  little  older  flower 
our  stamen  has  risen  (Fig.  5,  3),  and  stands 


36  COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS. 

directly  in  the  path  to  the  spur.  As  the  flower 
grows  older,  the  stamens  rise  one  by  one  until 
all  have  discharged.  In  those  that  I  have  ob- 
served, the  time  for  all  to  discharge  occupies 
about  three  days.1 

While  the  stamens  are  discharging  their  pol- 
len, the  style  is  short  and  the  three  branches  are 
not  expanded  (Fig.  5,  7,  s),  but  after  the  stamens 
are  withered,  the  style  elongates  until  it  stands 
exactly  where  each  stamen  in  turn  stood,  and 
the  three  branches,  each  bearing  its  stigma, 
spread  widely  open  (Fig.  5,  9). 

If  the  end  of  the  spur  be  cut  off,  nectar  will 
be  found  there.  The  pupils  know  that  bees 
make  honey  from  flowers,  and  can  be  led  to 
think  what  use  this  may  be  to  the  flower.  As 
the  stamens  and  style  are  not  mature  at  the  same 
time,  the  flower  is  not  adapted  for  self-fertiliza- 
tion, and  must  be  fertilized  in  some  way  with 
pollen  from  another  flower.  Since  the  stamens 
while  discharging  stand  directly  in  the  path  to 

1  This  regular  order  of  dehiscence  is  often  spoiled  by  insects 
eating  the  pollen  and  preventing  the  stamens  from  following 
their  normal  course,  so  that  it  may  be  necessary  to  pick  all  the 
flowers  in  bud,  and  let  them  develop  in  the  house. 


COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS.  37 

the  nectar  contained  in  the  spur,  pollen  will  be 
rubbed  off  on  the  body  of  an  insect  in  search  of 
the  nectar,  and  this  pollen  will  be  left  in  an  older 
flower  on  an  expanded  style  standing  directly  in 
the  path  to  the  spur. 

The  dark  lines  on  the  calyx  and  corolla  con- 
verge towards  the  tip  of  the  spur  where  the 
nectar  is  contained.  The  name  nectar-guides 
has  been  given  to  such  markings.  It  has  been 
found  that  they  always  point  to  the  part  of  the 
flower  where  the  nectar  is  obtainable,  and  they 
are  thought  to  guide  the  insects.  The  corolla 
generally  fades  as  soon  as  fertilization  is  accom- 
plished. One  use  that  it  serves  is  to  attract 
insects  by  its  color  to  the  feast  spread  for  them. 

The  position  of  the  flower  makes  a  convenient 
landing-place  for  insects,  and  it  also  shelters  the 
nectar  from  injury  by  the  rain.  Sprengel  sug- 
gests that  the  use  of  the  fringe  is  to  prevent  the 
rain  running  down  the  claws  into  the  spur. 
This  seems  to  me  fanciful,  as  I  cannot  see  from 
my  experiments  that  it  would  do  so  in  any  case. 
It  would  be  well  to  have  the  pupils  subject  the 
flowers  to  an  artificial  rain  from  a  brush.  They 


38  COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS. 

can  try  the  experiment  of  removing  the  fringe 
and  see  if  the  rain  gets  in.  If  the  flower  is  held 
up  the  water  runs  directly  into  the  spur,  show- 
ing that  its  nodding  position  is  a  protection. 
Moreover,  the  force  of  the  rain  itself  bends  the 
flower  downwards,  so  that  all  the  water  is  re- 
ceived on  the  outer  part. 

This  transfer  of  pollen  from  one  flower  to  an- 
other is  known  as  cross-fertilization.1  The  term 
is  applied  by  Darwin  to  crossing  with  a  distinct 
plant.  The  subject  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
to  students  in  the  whole  range  of  Botany.  The 
fact  that  it  is  brought  about  by  such  varied  con- 
trivances and  in  plants  belonging  to  families  so 
widely  separated,  would  lead  us  to  conclude  that 
it  must  be  of  great  use  to  the  offspring.  Darwin 
has  proved  in  a  number  of  cases  that  a  plant  will 
not  set  seed  when  fertilized  exclusively  with  its 
own  pollen,  and  in  others  that  the  offspring  of 
self-fertilized'  plants  were  not  so  strong  as  those  of 
the  same  species  of  plant  when  cross-fertilized.2 

1  A  Reader  in  Botany.     Part  II.     Flower  and  Fruit.     Boston, 
Ginn  &  Co.,  1892.     I. 

2  The  Effects  of  Cross  and  Self-Fertilization  in  the  Vegetable 
Kingdom.    Charles  Darwin. 


COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS.  39 

The  subject  was  first  treated  by  C.  C.  Sprengel,1 
who  in  1793  published  a  treatise  on  flowers  requir- 
ing insect  aid  for  their  fertilization.  This  book 
attracted  little  notice  from  scientific  men.  In 
1862  Charles  Darwin  published  his  treatise  on 
the  "Fertilization  of  Orchids,"2  which  has  been 
followed  by  a  large  number  of  books  and  papers 
on  the  subject.3 

An  account  of  the  fertilization  of  Tropseolum 
by  Sprengel  will  be  found  in  the  Reader,4  and 
the  pupils,  after  having  completed  their  own  obser- 
vations, will  be  pleased  to  read  what  was  observed 
nearly  one  hundred  years  ago. 

Let  us  now  examine  the  House-Geranium. 

1.  Can  you  see  any  markings  in  this  flower 
which  would  indicate  the  path  to  the  nectar  ? 
Does  the  arrangement  of  the  stamens  give  you 
any  idea  where  to  look  for  it  ? 

1  C.   C.   Sprengel.      Das  Entdeckte  Geheimniss   der   Natur. 
Berlin,  1793. 

2  On  the  Various  Contrivances  by  which  British  and  Foreign 
Orchids  are  Fertilized,  etc.     Charles  Darwin. 

3  A  Bibliography  of  the  subject,  up  to  1883,  will  be  found 
in  The  Fertilization  of  Flowers;  a  Translation,  by  D'Arcy  W. 
Thompson,  from  the  German  of  H.  Miiller. 

4  Reader  in  Botany.     II. 


40  COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS. 

2.  Where  is  the  nectar  contained  in  this 
flower  ?  It  belongs  to  the  same  family  as  the 
Tropaeolum.  Can  you  see  any  resemblance 
between  these  flowers  in  their  manner  of  hold- 
ing the  nectar  ? 

The  markings  in  this  flower  are  often  very 
slight.  There  is  generally,  however,  a  differ- 
ence of  color  in  the  two  upper  petals,  and  these 
are  veined  with  darker  lines  than  the  lower  ones. 
In  some  species  of  Pelargonium  the  two  upper 
petals  are  conspicuously  streaked  and  spotted. 
These  two  upper  petals  in  our  specimen  are  also 
narrower  than  the  lower  and  stand  more  erect, 
making  the  flower  somewhat  irregular.  The 
stamens  are  shorter  towards  the  upper  petals, 
so  that  an  insect  creeping  into  the  flower  on  its 
upper  side  would  be  dusted  with  pollen  from  all 
the  stamens.  These  facts  should  lead  the  pupil 
to  examine  the  bases  of  the  two  upper  petals 
carefully. 

There  he  will  discover  a  small  hole  from  which 
a  narrow  tube  extends  downward  nearly  to  the 
base  of  the  pedicel.  This  tube  is  really  formed 
by  the  upper  sepal  being  adnate  to  the  pedicel, 


COMMON   HOUSE-PLANTS.  41 

and  is  called  a  concealed  spur.  Imagine  the  spur 
of  the  Tropseolum  adnate  to  its  flower-stalk,  and 
you  have  the  arrangement  of  the  Pelargonium. 

Sometimes  in  our  gardens  we  find  flowers 
without  any  nectar-guides,  and  Darwin  has 
pointed  out  that  this  is  correlated  with  the 
abortion  of  the  spur.1  This  is  a  proof  that  the 
color  is  connected  with  cross-fertilization. 

The  style,  as  in  Tropaeolum,  is  not  lengthened 
or  expanded  until  the  stamens  have  ceased  dis- 
charging. This  is  called  dichogamy.  Both  the 
Tropaeolum  and  the  Pelargonium  are  dichoga- 
mous.  This  secures  cross-fertilization,  and  the 
flowers,  therefore,  seldom  set  seed  in  the  house, 
where  insects  are  absent,  except  an  occasional 
fly.  It  would  be  interesting  to  try  some  experi- 
ments of  artificial  fertilization  on  the  school- 
room plants. 

One  teacher  has  told  me  that  her  method  of 
starting  the  subject  of  cross-fertilization  was  to 
go  out  in  the  garden  with  her  pupils,  and  set 

1  The  Variation  of  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication. 
By  Charles  Darwin.  Orange  Judd  &  Co. ,  New  York.  Vol.11, 
p.  414. 


42  COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS. 

them  to  watching  the  bees  and  other  insects  at 
the  flowers.  She  showed  them  the  pollen  on 
the  bodies  of  the  bees,  and  told  them  to  observe 
what  part  of  the  flower  it  touched.  I  cannot 
imagine  a  better  way  of  awakening  a  quick 
interest  in  the  living  study,  but  it  is  seldom, 
perhaps,  that  a  teacher  is  able  to  carry  out  such 
a  plan,  and  the  present  volume  supposes  the  les- 
sons to  be  given  in  the  very  early  spring,  t 
may  say,  once  for  all,  that  the  more  one  is  able 
to  put  aside  the  ordinary  schoolroom  methods, 
and  learn  directly  from  Nature  herself,  the  more 
likely  is  the  study  to  prove  of  abiding  interest 
and  value. 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  understand  better 
the  uses  of  the  parts  of  the  flower. 

The  calyx  and  corolla  are  protective  and  at- 
tractive organs.  If  we  examine  the  bud  in  a 
young  state  we  shall  see  that  the  floral  envelopes 
protect  the  essential  organs  while  they  are  in 
a  young  state. 

The  corolla  offers  attractions  to  insects  in  its 
color.  Occasionally  the  calyx  also  is  useful  in 
this  way,  as  in  Tropseolum.  Both  of  these 


COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS.  43 

organs  are  often  modified  to  secrete  and  to  hold 
nectar,  and  to  act  as  platforms  upon  which  the 
insect  may  alight.1 

The  stamens  contain  the  fertilizing  substance, 
(pollen),  which  is  essential  to  the  production  of 
seed.  The  anther  is  the  portion  of  the  stamen 
which  holds  the  pollen,  and  is  the  only  essential 
part. 

The  pistil  contains  the  ovules,  which  are  to 
develop  into  seeds  when  they  have  been  fertil- 
ized. 

The  ovary  is  the  portion  of  the  pistil  which 
holds  the  ovules,  and  the  stigma  is  a  portion  of 
the  pistil  through  which  the  pollen  tubes  enter 
to  fertilize  the  ovules.  The  style  is  not  essen- 
tial. 

1  The  general  form  of  the  perianth,  especially  when  it  is  dis- 
tinctly petaloid  in  character  and  of  some  size,  always  stands  in 
a  definite  relation  to  pollination  by  means  of  insects,  and  large, 
gaily-colored,  delicate,  strongly  scented  flowers  only  occur  where 
fertilization  is  effected  by  them ;  these  characters  are  intended 
to  induce  insects  to  visit  the  flowers;  the  infinite  variety  and 
often  strangeness  of  form  in  the  perianth  are  specially  calculated 
to  compel  insects  of  a  definite  size  and  species  to  adopt  definite 
positions  of  their  bodies  in  their  search  for  the  nectar,  and  thus 
the  pollen  is  conveyed,  without  intention  on  their  part,  from 
flower  to  flower.  —  Goebel's  Outlines,  p.  352. 


44  COMMON   HOUSE-PLANTS. 

Any  of  these  parts  may  act  as  attractive 
organs  to  insects  by  secreting  nectar.  In  the 
Violet  the  nectar  is  secreted  by  the  stamens, 
and  in  the  Marsh-Marigold  (Caltha)  by  the  car- 
pels. 


III. 

HOUSE-PLANTS.  —  continued. 

EACH  new  description  should  notice  more 
points  about  the  flower  than  the  preceding  one. 
But  it  is  impossible,  as  has  already  been  said,  to 
give  any  rule  for  the  rate  of  progress,  which 
must  depend  upon  the  capacity  of  the  class. 
The  teacher  alone  can  judge  how  fast  new  ideas 
can  be  suggested,  and  with  the  new  ideas  the 
new  terms  with  which  to  express  them.  It  is 
well  to  make  the  pupils  feel  the  need  of  technical 
terms,  to  allow  them  to  describe  the  things  they 
see  in  their  own  language,  and  discover  how 
much  trouble  is  saved  by  a  single  expressive 
word,  before  supplying  them  with  the  necessary 
terms. 

Only  a  few  points  about  each  flower  will  be 
mentioned  in  this  chapter,  but  a  full  account  of 
each  plant  will  be  found  in  the  Appendix. 

45 


46  COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS. 

Fuchsia  coccinea.1 

This  flower  will  probably  prove  easy  to  de- 
scribe. It  is  large  and  perfectly  regular,  com- 
plete, and  symmetrical..  The  parts  are  in  fours. 
The  corolla  and  stamens  are  joined  to  the  calyx 
above  the  ovary.  The  same  difficulty  arises  here 
that  we  noticed  in  the  Snowdrop.  Shall  we 
regard  the  calyx  as  beginning  at  the  base  of  the 
flower  or  on  top  of  the  ovary?  There  is  a  dif- 
ference in  opinion  among  botanists  on  this 
point.  It  is  probable  that  in  certain  flowers  the 
outer  covering  of  the  ovary  is  formed  from  the 
calyx  tissue,  in  others  from  the  receptacle  grow- 
ing up  around  the  ovary,  and  in  others  from  a 
combination  of  both  calyx  and  receptacle.  We, 
however,  are  assuredly  not  able  to  decide  where 
the  doctors  disagree,  and  we  will  simply  describe 
the  corolla  and  stamens  as  inserted  on  the  throat 
of  the  calyx. 

The  Fuchsia  is  a  good  flower  with  which  to 
begin  the  study  of  cestivation;  that  is,  the  dis- 

1  Appendix,  p.  294.  The  species  are  much  mixed  in  cultiva- 
tion. 


COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS.  47 

position  of  the  parts  of  the  flower  in  the  bud. 
A  bud  is  generally  necessary  to  determine  the 
aestivation.  In  this  flower,  the  margins  of  the 
calyx  lobes  meet  without  overlapping,  and  are 
called  valvate.  Each  petal  has  one  edge  over 
and  one  edge  under  its  neighbors,  and  this  is 
convolute  aestivation.  This  arrangement  of  the 
parts  of  each  circle  in  the  bud  must  be  shown  in 
our  diagrams  (Fig.  5,  10) . 

When  we  wish  to  put  the  Fuchsia  into  the 
right  place  on  our  schedule,  we  find  that  it  be- 
longs near  the  end  of  the  polypetalous  division 
of  the  dicotyledons,  because  the  corolla  and 
stamens  are  inserted  above  the  inferior  ovary, 
and  as  the  Evening-Primrose  family  (Onagracece) 
is  described  as  having  the  parts  usually  in  fours, 
the  calyx  valvate,  and  the  corolla  convolute,  we 
place  our  flower  under  that  head. 

Abutilon  striatum.1 

A  very  good  observer  declared  to  me  from 
memory  that  this  flower  was  gamopetalous.  If 
we  look  at  the  flower  we  shall  see  how  she  came 

1  Appendix,  p.  295. 


48  COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS. 

to  make  the  mistake,  for  the  petals  do  not 
spread  open,  but  remain  tightly  clasping  each 
other,  so  that  we  can  see  the  aestivation  in  a 
full-blown  flower.  The  corolla  is  convolute,  like 
that  of  a  Fuchsia,  and  if  we  get  a  tiny  bud,  still 
covered  by  the  calyx,  we  shall  see  that  this  is 
valvate,  also  like  the  Fuchsia. 

The  most  characteristic  thing  that  we  next 
notice  is  the  long  tube  of  stamens,  enclosing  the 
style,  separated  at  the  top  into  a  thick  cluster 
of  anther-bearing  filaments.  This  reminds  us 
of  the  House-Geranium,  where  the  filaments 
were  also  united,  but  in  the  Abutilon  the  sta- 
mens are  very  numerous. 

The  anthers  are  different  from  any  we  have 
seen.  They  are  one-celled,  and  open  all  around 
the  margin.1 

It  may  be  difficult  for  beginners  to  determine 
the  structure  of  the  ovary.  If  a  thin  section  be 
slipped  within  a  plate  of  mica,  held  up  to  the 
light,  and  examined  with  a  glass,  the  cells  can 
be  plainly  seen  surrounding  the  central  column 
of  the  style,  which  ends  in  branches.  The  nuin- 

1  Gray's  Lessons,  p.  102,  Fig.  298. 


COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS.  49 

her  of  cells  and  style-branches  corresponds  and 
varies  in  different  flowers.  The  more  usual 
number  is  ten. 

The  nectar  is  lodged  in  five  small  depressions 
in  the  base  of  the  corolla,  and  overflows  into 
the  bottom  of  the  baggy  calyx.  A  bee,  flying 
into  the  flower,  strikes  the  stigmas,  which  are 
longer  than  the  stamens,  and  then  the  anthers. 
In  crawling  out  he  strikes  the  under  part  of  the 
recurved  divisions  of  the  style  and  turns  them 
backwards  so  that  he  does  not  touch  the  stig- 
mas, but  rubs  off  his  pollen  on  the  next  flower 
which  he  enters. 

The  Abutilons  are  frequently  fertilized  by 
humming-birds.  Miiller  found,  in  a  series  of 
experiments,  that  all  which  he  examined  were 
sterile  with  their  own  pollen.1 

The  Mallow  Family  (Malvaceae)  to  which  the 
Abutilon  belongs,  is  easily  recognized  among  the 
group  of  polypetalous  flowers  with  the  corolla 
under  the  ovary  (hypogynous),  by  its  staminal 
column  with  the  thick  cluster  of  anther-bearing 
filaments  at  the  top,  its  one-celled  anthers,  and 

1  The  Fertilization  of  Flowers,  p.  145. 


50  COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS. 

its  carpels,  either  separate,  or  united  around  a 
central  style.  The  Hibiscus,  Althea,  and  Mal- 
low are  other  members  of  this  family. 

AZALEA  (Rhododendron  Indicum).1 

The  flowers  are  from  terminal  mixed  buds, 
which  are  covered  with  scales  answering  to  the 
scales  of  a  leaf-bud.  The  study  of  a  bud  while 
the  leaves  and  flowers  are  still  tightly  covered 
with  the  scales  is  instructive.  The  parts  are 
folded  away  in  miniature.  The  anthers  are  far 
more  developed  than  the  rest  of  the  flower- 
organs.  A  little  older  bud,  where  the  flowers 
are  separated,  will  show  the  aestivation,  which  is 
imbricated,  and  with  the  petals  strongly  ribbed. 

This  is  our  first  example  of  a  gamopetalous 
corolla.  It  is  trumpet-shaped.  The  corolla  is 
slightly  irregular ;  that  is,  the  petals  are  not  all 
alike,  and  the  flower  is  tipped  sideways  on  the 
stem,  as  is  the  rule  with  irregular  flowers.  This 
is  probably  connected  with  the  visits  of  insects 
and  offers  a  convenient  landing-place  for  them. 

Ask  the  scholar  where  he  would  expect    to 

1  Appendix,  p.  296. 


COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS.  51 

find  the  nectar  from  the  position  of  the  stamens 
and  the  coloring  of  the  flower.  The  upper 
petals  have  nectar-guides  formed  by  a  darker 
shade  of  coloring  toward  the  base.  The  stamens 
all  turn  toward  these  upper  petals,  and  discharge 
in  such  a  way  that  the  pollen  from  the  pores 
at  the  apex  would  dust  an  insect  creeping  into 
the  upper  part  of  the  flower.  While  the  stamens 
are  discharging  the  style  is  bent  downwards  and 
to  one  side,  but  when  they  have  discharged,  the 
style  rises  and  the  stigma  occupies  the  same 
position  as  these  stamens,  directly  in  the  path  to 
the  base  of  the  upper  petals.  This  can  be  seen 
by  examining  flowers  in  different  stages.  We 
should,  therefore,  expect  to  find  the  nectar  at 
the  base  of  the  two  upper  petals,  and  here  we 
shall  find  it.  A  vertical  section  of  a  flower  in 
full  bloom  will  disclose  it,  while  there  is  none  to 
be  found  at  the  base  of  the  lower  petals.  This 
maturing  of  the  style  and  stamens  at  different 
times  is  an  adaptation  for  cross-fertilization, 
already  noticed  in  connection  with  the  Tropseo- 
lum  and  Pelargonium. 

The  anthers  of  the  Azalea  are  of  a  new  type. 


52  COMMON   HOUSE-PLANTS. 

They  discharge  their  pollen  from  a  little  chink 
in  the  apex  of  each  cell,  a  characteristic  mode 
of  dehiscence  in  the  Heath  family,  to  which  the 
plant  belongs. 

The  ovary  is  superior  and  five-celled,  and  the 
style  is  single. 

Where  shall  we  place  our  plant  on  the  sched- 
ule ?  We  see  at  once  that  it  is  a  dicotyledon 
and  gamopetalous.  It  has  also  a  superior  ovary, 
which  brings  it  under  our  second  head  in  the 
gamopetalous  division.  Here  we  should  be  in- 
clined to  place  it  among  the  irregular  flowers  at 
the  end,  but  we  find  it  might  also  be  classified 
under  the  Heath  family  (Ericaceae),  which  has 
both  regular  and  irregular  flowers.  The  fact  of 
its  having  anthers  opening  by  terminal  pores 
would  lead  us  to  place  it  in  the  Heath  family, 
though  there  are  some  members  of  this  fam- 
ily, as  our  Trailing  Arbutus,  that  have  anthers 
dehiscing  longitudinally.  There  are  other  char- 
acters which  would  tell  a  person  used  to  ob- 
serving plants  where  this  one  belonged.  The 
leaves,  so  thick,  hairy,  and  leathery,  remind  us 
of  the  Checkerberry,  the  Partridge- Vine,  and 


COMMON   HOUSE-PLANTS.  53 

Blueberry,  and  the  tough  stems,  clothed  with 
rusty  bristles,  resemble  many  other  members  of 
the  family. 

Begonia  semperflorens.1 

This  is  an  interesting  example  of  a  plant  with 
flowers  in  which  the  essential  organs  are  sepa- 
rated. 

Both  the  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  are 
on  the  same  plant  (monoecious). 

The  pupils  should  describe  the  plant  and  make 
description  and  diagrams  of  both  kinds  of 
flowers. 

The  leaves  of  Begonia  have  a  habit  of  budding, 
and  cuttings  can  be  taken  from  them.  A  leaf 
pinned  to  the  ground  will  throw  out  buds  and 
produce  new  plants.  If  it  is  practicable  to  try 
experiments  of  this  kind  in  the  schoolroom,  they 
will  add  to  the  interest  of  the  lessons. 

The  inflorescence  of  Begonia  is  determinate. 
The  main  axis  of  the  flower-stalk  is  terminated 
by  a  flower,  which  is  the  oldest  flower  on  the 

1  Appendix,  p.  297.  The  structure  of  all  Begonias  is  essen- 
tially the  same.  Sometimes  the  pistillate  flowers  have  more 
perianth  leaves. 


54  COMMON   HOUSE-PLANTS. 

cluster.  Below  are  younger  axillary  brandies 
which  are  also  terminated  by  flowers  (Fig.  6). 
They  spring  from  the  axils  of  scaly  bracts, 
which  fall  off  before  the  flower  opens  (deciduous). 
All  these  first  flowers  are  staminate.  Later,  the 
pistillate  flowers  arise  from  the  sides  of  the 
secondary  branches. 

The  staminate  flowers  have  a  perianth  of  four 
leaves  (Fig.  6,  2, 3,  s)  in  two  circles,  the  inner 
circle  alternating  with  the  outer,  and  a  cluster  of 
stamens  in  the  centre.  There  is  no  trace  of  a  pistil. 
The  inner  perianth  leaves  are  narrower  than  the 
outer.  The  anthers  are  innate,  the  cells  are  small, 
and  the  continuation  of  the  filament  between 
the  cells  (connective)  is  very  large  (Fig.  6,  4). 

The  pistillate  flowers  (Fig.  6,  5,  6,  9)  have 
usually  a  five-leaved  perianth,  imbricated  like 
the  corolla  of  Tropseolum  (Fig.  6,  9),  and  a  pistil 
of  three  carpels.  The  ovary  is  three-celled, 
and  inferior,  with  a  wing  projecting  from  the 
back  of  each  cell.  There  are  three  styles,  and 
the  stigmas  are  horseshoe  shaped.  The  ends 
of  the  stigmas  are  spirally  twisted  in  a  very 
peculiar  manner  (Fig.  6,  7). 


PIG.  6.  — Begonia  semperflorens.  1.  Flowering  branch.  2.  Staminate  flower, 
from  above.  3.  Side  view  of  same.  4.  Stamen.  5.  Pistillate 
flower,  from  above.  6.  Side  view  of  same.  7.  Branch  of  style 
with  stigma.  8.  Diagram  of  staminate  flower.  9.  Diagram  of 
pistillate  flower. 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


COMMON   HOUSE-PLANTS.  55 

It  is  plain  that  fertilization  is  impossible  here 
without  some  external  agency.  The  pollen  must 
be  carried  to  the  stigma  by  insects.  I  know 
nothing  of  the  manner  in  which  this  is  accom- 
plished. My  plants  have  set  no  fruit  in  house 
or  garden,  nor  do  I  find  anything  relating  to  the 
subject  in  books.  Muller  has  no  remarks  on 
this  family. 

The  placentae  are  very  large,  extending  back 
into  the  cells  (Fig.  6,  9),  and  the  ovules  are 
extremely  minute. 

The  place  which  the  Begonia  F.  holds  in  the 
Flora  may  puzzle  the  pupil.  The  staminate 
flowers  may  be  regarded  as  having  a  calyx  of 
two  sepals  and  a  corolla  of  two  petals,  but  the 
pistillate  flowers  cannot  be  divided  into  two 
circles,  as  the  leaves  are  imbricated,  exactly  as 
in  an  ordinary  calyx  (Fig.  6,  9).  We  must 
therefore  use  the  word  perianth  in  describing 
them,  since  we  are  ignorant  of  their  morphology. 
The  flower,  if  it  had  an  outer  and  an  inner  circle 
of  perianth  leaves,  would  be  placed  among  the 
polypetalous  families,  and  as  the  perianth  and 
stamens  are  on  top  of  the  ovary,  it  would  come 


56  COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS. 

near  the  end  of  this  group.  We  shall  find  it  here 
in  the  Garden  Botany.  Many  truly  apetalous 
flowers,  as  the  Anemone,  for  instance,  are  placed 
among  the  polypetalous  families,  because  they 
are  evidently  reduced  and  degraded  members  of 
these  families,  so  that  there  is  no  objection  to 
placing  the  Begonia  here,  even  if  the  perianth 
really  consists  of  a  single  circle.  Indeed,  mod- 
ern German  authors  intercalate  the  whole  of  the 
apetalous  division  among  the  polypetalous  fami- 
lies.1 It  must  not  be  supposed  that  facts  of  this 
kind  are  to  be  forced  upon  the  pupil,  but  it  may 
easily  happen  that  a  real  difficulty  may  arise  in 
the  student  saying  with  perfect  reason,  "I  do 
not  see  why  the  flower  is  not  apetalous."  The 
morphology  of  the  perianth  is  doubtful. 

1  The  arrangement  of  dicotyledons  by  De  Candolle  and  End- 
licher  into  three  divisions,  Apetalae,  Gamopetalae,  and  Choripet- 
alae,  is  now  pretty  well  given  up  in  theory,  though  still  often 
used  in  practice.  A.  Braun  has  placed  the  greater  part  of  the 
Apetalae  with  the  ChoTipetala?,  and  J.  Hanstein  has  found  room 
there  for  the  remainder,  so  that  the  class  has  now  only  two 
sub-classes,  Gamopetalse  and  Choripetala3.  —  Goebel's  Outlines, 
p.  467. 


COMMON  HOUSE-PLANTS.  57 

THE  STAMENS. 

Let  us  review  the  flowers  we  have  studied 
with  special  reference  to  the  stamens,  in  order 
to  become  acquainted  with  their  various  forms 
and  the  terms  employed  to  describe  them. 

We  have  always  told  first  the  number  of  the 
stamens  and  then  stated  whether  they  were  dis- 
tinct or  united.  We  find  that  all  the  flowers  we 
have  studied  have  distinct  stamens,  except  the 
House-Geranium  and  the  Abutilon,  where  there 
is  a  staminal  tube.  Such  stamens  are  monadel- 
phous,  from  two  Greek  words  meaning  "in  one 
brotherhood."  This  form  of  stamens  is  charac- 
teristic of  the  whole  Mallow  family. 

Sometimes  the  stamens  are  united  by  the 
anthers.  We  shall  see  examples  of  this  in  the 
Violet,  the  Dandelion,  and,  in  fact,  all  Com- 
posites. 

The  insertion  of  the  stamens  is  a  very  impor- 
tant point  in  description.  They  may  be  inserted 
on  the  receptacle,  or  a  receptacular  disk,  on  the 
calyx,  or  on  the  corolla.  There  are  three  words 
used  to  describe  their  insertion,  two  of  which 


58  COMMON   HOUSE-PLANTS. 

we  have  already  mentioned  in  connection  with 
the  corolla.  They  are  important  words  to  learn 
and  to  remember,  because  they  are  used  a  great 
deal  in  classification.  We  have  employed  them 
to  divide  our  polypetalous  flowers  into  three 
groups.  These  words  are  hypogynous,  perigy- 
nouSj  and  epigynous.  The  stamens  are  hypogy- 
nous when  they  are  inserted  on  the  receptacle, 
beneath  the  ovary,  like  the  stamens  of  the  Tulip, 
the  House-Geranium,  the  Abutilon,  etc.  They 
are  perigynous  when  they  are  inserted  on  the 
calyx,  or  on  a  disk  made  by  the  growing  up  of 
the  receptacle  around  the  ovary.  We  shall  soon 
have  examples  of  this  union  in  the  Rose  family. 
They  are  epigynous  when  they  are  inserted  on 
the  calyx  or  corolla  on  top  of  the  ovary,  or  on 
a  disk  formed  by  the  growing  up  of  the  recep- 
tacle entirely  around  the  ovary.  The  Fuchsia, 
the  Begonia,  and  the  Snowdrop  are  examples 
of  flowers  with  epigynous  stamens.  Sometimes 
the  stamens  are  inserted  on  the  corolla  (epi- 
petalous). 

Stamens  are  usually  made  up  of  filament  and 
anther,  but  the  filament,  being  only  a  stalk,  is 


COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS.  59 

not  an  essential  part  of  the  stamen.  When 
there  is  no  filament,  an  anther  is  said  to  be  ses- 
sile, just  as  a  leaf  without  its  stalk  is  sessile. 

The  anther  is  filled  with  pollen.  We  have 
already  learned  its  use.  It  is  to  fertilize  the 
ovules  in  order  that  seeds  may  be  formed. 

Anthers  are  generally  two-lobed,  or  as  they 
are  called,  rather  incorrectly,  two-celled.1  Al- 
most all  the  flowers  we  have  studied  have  two- 
celled  anthers,  but  those  of  the  Abutilon,  as  in 
the  Mallow  family  in  general,  are  one-celled. 

The  connective  is  the  continuation  of  the  fila- 
ment, connecting  the  two  lobes  of  the  anther. 
When  this  connective  runs  up  between  the  an- 
ther cells  the  anther  is  innate.  In  this  case  it  is 
attached  by  its  base  to  the  apex  of  the  filament, 
and  turns  generally  neither  in  nor  out.  The 
Begonia  has  innate  anthers  (Fig.  6,  4). 

Anthers  are  adnate  when  the  cells  are  fixed 

1  Each  of  these  so-called  cells  is  made  up  of  a  pair  of  pollen- 
sacs,  united  longitudinally,  and  the  commonest  mode  of  dehis- 
cence  is  the  splitting  of  the  anther  lobe  up  and  down  the  edge 
of  the  partitions  of  the  two  pollen-sacs,  while  the  tissue  of  these 
partitions  is  torn  away,  so  that  the  pollen  of  both  sides  is  dis- 
charged at  the  same  time.  All  such  anthers  are  really  four- 
celled.  See  Goebel,  p.  369. 


60  COMMON   HOUSE-PLANTS. 

throughout  their  whole  length  to  one  side  of  the 
connective.  We  have  not  had  any  example  of 
this  form.  We  shall  see  it  later  in  the  Violet 
(Fig.  10,  3,  4).  When  the  anther  is  fixed  by  a 
single  point  to  the  filament  it  may  face  inward 
(introrse),  or  outward  (extrorse),  or  it  may  swing 
loosely  back  and  forth,  in  which  case  it  is 
versatile. 

These  forms  are  governed  by  the  necessities 
of  the  flower.  In  flowers  adapted  for  insect 
visitors,  the  position  and  form  of  the  anthers  is 
always  such  that  the  pollen  will  be  rubbed  off 
by  the  insects.1  If  the  nectar  is  in  the  centre 
of  the  flower  between  the  stamens  and  the  pistil, 
so  that  an  insect  is  obliged  to  creep  within  the 
staminal  circle  to  get  at  it,  we  should  expect  to 
find  introrse  anthers.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
nectar  is  at  the  base  of  the  perianth,  or  so  sit- 
uated that  the  only  access  is  outside  of  the  sta- 

1  A  wider  statement  may  be  quoted  from  Goebel.  The  modes 
in  which  the  pollen-sacs  dehisce  are  very  various,  and  have  a 
close  and  constant  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  arrangements  foT 
pollination  in  the  flowers  whether  by  insects  or  some  other 
means.  Outlines  of  Classification  and  Special  Morphology  of 
Plants,  p.  368. 


COMMON   HOUSE-PLANTS.  61 

mens,  we  should  look  for  extrorse  anthers.  This 
must  be  taken  as  a  statement  with  many  excep- 
tions, as  there  are  flowers  with  special  arrange- 
ment for  the  affixing  of  the  pollen  to  the  insect 
where  the  rule  would  not  apply,  such  as  the 
Violet  and  the  Milkweed.  But  it  is  certainly 
true  that  this  principle  of  adaptation  is  one  that 
can  be  generally  traced  by  thoughtful  study  of 
the  relations  between  the  insect  visitors  and  the 
flower,  and  that  the  grasping  of  this  idea  ren- 
ders the  study  of  forms,  that  is,  morphology,  fas- 
cinating. Thus,  in  a  flower  like  Tropaeolum,  for 
instance,  we  do  not  think  that  it  is  sufficient  to 
note  that  it  has  eight  distinct  stamens  with 
erect  anthers,  but  we  observe  how  the  stamens 
rise  one  by  one  and  place  themselves  in  the  path 
to  the  nectar,  and  when  they  have  risen  dis- 
charge and  become  a  round  mass  of  pollen,  so 
that  no  visitor  to  the  spur  can  fail  to  be  dusted 
with  the  yellow  grains. 

The  description  of  the  anthers  is  a  difficult 
point,  especially  for  the  beginner,  but  it  has 
been  made  rather  unnecessarily  puzzling  by  our 
text-books. 


62  COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS. 

By  far  the  larger  number  of  flowers  with 
which  we  have  to  deal  have  anthers  which  are 
neither  innate  nor  adnate,  such  as  the  Hyacinth, 
the  Crocus,  the  House-Geranium,  and  many 
others.  These  anthers  are  fixed  at  a  single 
point  to  the  apex  of  the  filament,  and  may  be 
either  introrse  or  extrorse.1  They  cannot  be 
called  versatile,  unless  they  swing  loosely,  as 
in  the  stamens  of  a  lily.  We  have  in  our  text- 
book no  term  to  describe  them.  If  we  take  the 
terms  used  by  Bentham  and  Hooker,  and  divide 
anthers  into  two  classes,  those  fixed  by  the  back 
(dorsifixed),  and  those  fixed  by  the  base  (basi- 
fixed),  we  shall  have  little  difficulty.  Dorsifixed 
anthers  may  be  either  introrse,  extrorse,  or  ver- 
satile. 

It  should  always  be  remembered,  however, 
that  these  terms  are  only  our  attempts  to  de- 
scribe the  things  we  are  classifying,  and  that 
the  anthers,  as  well  as  all  other  organs  of  the 
plant,  are  perfectly  independent  of  our  defini- 
tions, and  have  no  scruples  at  all  about  spoiling 

1  An  anther  may  be  extrorse  when  young  and  introrse  when 
old,  as  in  the  Spring  Beauty  (Claytoma),  or  vice  versa. 


COMMON    HOUSE-PLANTS.  63 

them  in  any  given  case.  Thus,  for  instance,  in 
the  anthers  of  the  Horsechestnut  blossom,  the 
cells  are  continued  below  the  insertion  on  either 
side  of  the  filament.  When  the  anthers  are 
young  the  cells  are  parallel  with  the  connective 
and  the  anthers  appear  to  be  basifixed,  but  later 
they  swing  forward,  and  any  one  would  say  that 
the  anthers  were  fixed  by  the  back.  Every 
classification  must  be  held  subject  to  exceptions 
and  somewhat  plastic.  Beginners  always  wish 
to  make  their  definitions  a  sort  of  Procrustean 
bed,  into  which  every  natural  object  must  be 
made  to  fit  by  lopping  or  stretching.  The  truer 
view  is  to  regard  Nature  as  having  a  language 
of  her  own,  which  cannot  be  completely  ex- 
pressed in  ours,  but  must  miss  many  fine  shades 
of  meaning  when  translated  into  words.  The 
universe  was  not  created  to  be  parcelled  out 
into  little  groups  of  objects,  each  with  its  own 
label,  as  many  teachers  seem  to  think,  although, 
undoubtedly,  it  would  be  much  easier  for  us  to 
teach,  if  this  were  the  case. 

The  dehiscence  of  an  anther  is  the  mode  in 
which   it  splits   to  discharge   its   pollen.     The 


64  COMMON   HOUSE-PLANTS. 

most  common  way  for  it  to  split  is  up  and  down 
the  whole  margin.  This  is  longitudinal  dehis- 
cence.  The  anthers  of  the  Tulip,  the  Begonia, 
the  Tropaeolum,  and,  in  fact,  nearly  all  the  an- 
thers we  have  examined,  discharge  in  this  way. 
The  Snowdrop  anther  only  splits  a  little  way 
down  and  discharges  through  a  small  slit  near 
the  top  of  each  cell,  although  there  is  a  line  all 
down  the  margin.  The  Azalea  anther  discharges 
through  little  round  pores  in  the  top  of  each 
anther  cell.  This  is  a  character  that  distin- 
guishes the  Heath  family,  with  some  exceptions, 
to  be  noticed  later. 

The  pollen  consists  of  grains,  which  differ  in 
different  plants.1  A  compound  microscope  is 
necessary  to  study  their  structure.  See  the 
text-book,  Gray's  Lessons,  p.  103. 

Grays  Lessons,  281-299. 

1  Reader  in  Botany.     III.     Protection  of  Pollen. 


IV. 
EARLY   SPRING    FLOWERS. 

WHY  do  certain  flowers  bloom  so  early  in  the 
spring  ?  A  few  warm  days  are  enough  to  send 
the  flower-buds  above  ground  and  to  unfold  the 
blossoms  even  before  the  leaves.  How  is  this 
rapid  growth  possible  ? 

HEPATICA  TRiLOBA.1 

If  in  very  early  spring  we  dig  up  an  Hepatica 
root,  we  find  a  bit  of  rootstock  with  a  cluster  of 
dried  leaves,  and  in  their  centre  a  bud.  A  piece 
of  the  rootstock  of  Bloodroot,  Solomon's  Seal, 
Skunk  Cabbage,  and  many  other  spring  plants, 
will  also  show  the  buds  ready  to  unfold.  A 
comparison  of  these  buds  with  the  better  known 
buds  of  the  trees  will  be  very  instructive.  The 
reason  for  the  rapid  spring  growth  is  the  same 

1  Appendix,  p.  299. 


66  EARLY   SPRING   FLOWERS. 

in  both  cases.  The  season's  growth  is  prepared 
during  the  previous  summer,  and  the  leaves  and 
flowers  are  packed  away  in  an  advanced  state  of 
development,  with  a  neighboring  store  of  food 
in  the  stem,  so  that  the  flowers  can  mature 
without  waiting  for  the  new  leaves  to  assimilate 
nourishment  for  them. 

If  we  compare  buds  of  Elm  or  Maple  with  the 
buds  of  Hepatica  or  Bloodroot,  we  shall  see  that 
both  are  surrounded  by  scales.  We  saw  in  the 
buds  of  the  trees  that  the  scales  in  each  species 
were  arranged  on  a  certain  definite  plan,  corre- 
sponding to  the  arrangement  of  the  branches, 
because  they  were,  in  fact,  modified  leaves.1  So 
it  is  with  our  herbs.  The  Hepatica  has  the 
scales  arranged  on  the  plan  of  three,  the  Blood- 
root  on  the  plan  of  two. 

The  true  leaves  of  the  Hepatica  (Fig.  7,  e) 
alternate  with  the  scales  (d,  e\  and  in  the  axils 
of  the  scales  we  find  the  flowers  (c),  indicating 
that  the  flower  is  a  branch,  for  branches  are 
developed  in  the  axils  of  leaves.  In  the  centre 
we  find  a  tiny  bud  (a),  which  is  the  beginning  of 

1  Part  I,  pp.  69,  72. 


EARLY   SPRING   FLOWERS. 


6T 


the  growth  for  the  next  season.  The  ground  plan 
of  the  whole  bud  is  here  given  (Fig.  7),  the  parts 
represented  in  cross  section,  just  as  we  made  a 
ground  plan  for  a  single  flower  in  our  first  lesson. 
In  the  section  on  buds  we  gave  the  defini- 
tion, "  a  bud  is  an  undeveloped  branch." 1 
Therefore  this  whole  plant  of  Hepatica,  when 
developed  from  the  bud,  is 
a  branch  from  the  under- 
ground stem,  and  the  flowers, 
being  in  the  axils  of  leaves, 
are  also  branches.  We  may 
give  the  definition  of  a  flower, 
"  a  flower  is  a  branch  modi- 
fied for  the  production  of 
seed."  2  It  follows  that  the  parts  of  the  flower 
are  modified  leaves.  This  will  be  brought  out 
more  fully  in  after  lessons,  and  the  teacher  must 
use  his  own  judgment  whether  it  shall  be  dwelt 
upon  early  or  late  in  the  course.  A  lesson  of 
this  kind  is  very  instructive,  for  it  enables  the 

1  Part  I,  p.  55. 

2  See  Concerning  a  Few  Common  Plants.    By  G.  L,  Goodale. 
Boston,  D.  C.  Heath  and  Co.,  1888.     Pages  23,  42. 


FIG.  7. — Ground  plan  of  year's 
growth  of  Hepatica. 


68  EARLY   SPRING   FLOWEBS. 

pupils  to  grasp  firmly  the  principles  of  morphol- 
ogy, and  later,  will  help  them  to  unravel  many 
puzzles. 

In  the  axils  of  the  scales  are  the  flowers, 
which  are  also  arranged  on  the  plan  of  three 
(Fig.  8,  B,  i).  If  the  buds  are  placed  in  water 
the  flowers  will  quickly  develop  and  we  can 
study  them  more  easily.  The  stem  does  not 
develop,  but  the  leaves  appear  to  come  from  the 
root,  and  are  therefore  termed  radical.  Each 
flower-stem,  which  also  appears  to  come  from 
the  root,  is  called  a  scape. 

The  flower  has  an  involucre  of  three  green 
bracts,  which  every  scholar  will  call  a  calyx 
(Fig.  8,  J5,  2).  The  real  calyx,  which  they  will 
mistake  for  the  corolla,  is  of  six,  or  more,  blue, 
purple,  or  white  sepals,  and  within  this  are  many 
stamens.  In  the  centre  is  a  head  of  many  sep- 
arate carpels.  All  these  circles  are  separate 
from  each  other,  and  the  parts  of  each  circle  are 
distinct.  The  plan  of  three  can  be  traced  in  the 
green  bracts  and  the  sepals,  which  are  normally 
six  in  number. 

It  would  be  better  if  we  could  begin  our  study 


EARLY   SPRING   FLOWERS.  69 

of  the  spring  flowers  with  a  flower  like  the  But- 
tercup, which  has  a  calyx  and  corolla,  instead  of 
with  an  Anemone,  lacking  its  corolla,  or  an 
Hepatica,  with  its  calyx-like  involucre,  but  our 
lessons  must  be  adapted  to  practical  needs,  and 
the  Buttercups  are  so  unkind  as  to  refuse  to 
blossom  till  Anemones  are  scarce  and  Hepaticas 
have  departed.  We  shall  soon  see  why  we  re- 
gard the  outer  circle  of  the  Hepatica  as  an 
involucre,  rather  than  as  a  calyx. 

The  Hepatica  is  one  of  the  very  first  and 
most  charming  of  our  wild  flowers.  The  little 
fuzzy  buds  seem  to  be  protected  against  the  cold 
by  their  furry  garments.  The  flowers  appear 
before  the  leaves,  but  we  can  find  last  year's 
leaves  for  our  descriptions.  The  nourishment 
for  the  growth  of  the  flowers  is  stored  in  the 
rootstock,  and  the  flowers  do  not  have  to  wait 
until  the  leaves  have  made  enough  food  for 
them  to  grow,  as  is  the  case  with  the  later 
spring  flowers,  which  have  no  storehouses  of 
food,  or  have  only  leaves  packed  away  in  their 
winter  buds.1 

1  Reader  in  Botany.     IV. 


FIG.  S.  —  A.  Wood-Anemone:  1.  Whole  Plant.  2.  Open  flower.  3.  Stamen. 
4.  Stamens  and  carpels.  5.  Diagram.  B.  Hepatica:  1.  Whole 
plant.  2.  Section  of  flower.  3.  Leaf.  4.  Carpel. 


EARLY    SPRING   FLOWERS.  71 

bearing  stem,  with  a  circle  of  three  compound 
leaves  answering  to  the  primary  divisions  of  the 
radical  leaf  (Fig.  8,  A,  i). 

The  flower  is  evidently  incomplete.  Ask  the 
pupils  what  they  can  find  in  the  Anemone  that 
corresponds  with  the  green  bracts  of  the  Hepat- 
ica.  Perhaps  some  of  them  will  point  out  the 
stem  leaves  of  the  Anemone  and  be  pleased  with 
the  discovery.  If  the  principles  of  the  chapters 
on  Buds  and  Seedlings  have  been  well  assimi- 
lated, they  will  not  be  surprised  to  see  how 
leaves  can  be  modified  into  widely  differing 
forms. 

The  scholars  could  not  tell  for  themselves 
whether  to  call  the  flower-leaves  of  the  Anem- 
one calyx  or  corolla.  When  one  circle  is  want- 
ing it  is  generally,  but  not  always,  the  corolla. 
We  determine  the  question,  in  the  case  of  the 
Anemone,  by  comparing  it  with  other  nearly 
related  flowers.  In  some  flowers  of  the  same 
family  the  petals  are  very  small  and  the  sepals 
large  and  petal-like,  as  in  the  Gold-thread  (Cop- 
tis  trifolia)  and  the  Hellebore.  The  next  step 
is  for  the  petals  to  become  very  minute,  as  in  a 


72  EARLY   SPRING   FLOWERS. 

European  Isopyrum,  and  then  to  disappear  alto- 
gether, as  in  an  American  Isopyrum.  The  sepals 
remain  and  they  are  petal-like  and  assume  the 
functions  of  the  corolla  in  attracting  insects.  If 
the  teacher  can  have  dried  specimens  at  his  com- 
mand to  illustrate  such  points  as  this  he  will 
find  them  of  great  assistance. 

The  Hepatica  resembles  the  Anemone  so 
much  that  many  authors  place  them  in  the 
same  genus  and  call  the  flower  Anemone  Hepat- 
ica. By  analogy,  then,  we  see  that  the  seeming 
corolla  of  the  Hepatica  answers  to  the  calyx  of 
the  Anemone,  and  that  the  three  green  leaves 
outside  it  are  bracts  corresponding  to  the  stem- 
leaves  of  the  Anemone. 

A  bract  is  the  modified  leaf  belonging  to  a 
flower-cluster,  and  a  circle  of  bracts  is  called  an 
involucre.  We  shall  find  this  word  applied  to 
the  stem-leaves  of  the  Anemone,  and  the  bracts 
of  Hepatica  are  described  as  a  calyx-like 
involucre. 

The  stamens  and  pistil  of  the  Hepatica  and 
Anemone  are  very  similar.  The  anthers  are  a 
good  illustration  of  innate  anthers  (Fig.  8,  A,  s) . 


EARLY   SPRING   FLOWERS.  73 

The  carpels  are  one-seeded  and  do  not  split  open 
when  ripe  (indehiscent).  This  form  of  ovary  is 
called  an  akene  (Fig.  8,  B,  4). 

MARSH-MARIGOLD  ( Caltha  palustris).1 

This  is  an  excellent  flower  for  beginners,  being 
so  simple  and  so  large.  There  are  no  radical 
leaves.  The  stem  is  hollow  and  furrowed,  and 
the  leaves  are  clasping  and  have  thin  papery 
stipules  joined  to  the  stem.  The  flowers  are 
terminal  and  in  the  axils  of  the  upper  leaves. 

The  flowers  strongly  resemble  the  last  two 
we  have  examined,  with  one  important  differ- 
ence. The  carpels  are  many-seeded  instead  of 
containing  but  one  seed,  and  they  split  open 
when  ripe.  This  kind  of  fruit .  is  called  a 
follicle. 

The  nectar  is  secreted  by  the  carpels  in  the 
little  folds  on  the  inner  side.  The  carpels,  after 
splitting,  often  become  strongly  recurved,  so 
that  they  resemble  the  petals  of  a  flower.  They 
then  show  very  clearly  that  they  are  really 
modified  leaves.  They  are,  of  course,  not  to  be 

1  Appendix,  p.  301. 


74  EARLY   SPRING   FLOWERS. 

seen  in  this  stage  at  the  season  when  we  are 
studying  the  flower,  but  we  use  them  later  as  an 
illustration  of  the  theory  of  the  flower. 

EARLY  MEADOW-RUE   (Tlialictrum  dioicwn}.1 

Another  early  spring  flower  belonging  to  the 
same  family  as  the  Anemone,  Hepatica,  and 
Caltha,  is  the  Meadow-Rue  (  Tlialictrwn  dioicum). 
The  sexes  are  separate  in  this  plant.  A  single 
flower  consists  merely  of  the  four  or  five  sepals 
and  a  head  of  stamens  or  of  carpels.  The  stam- 
inate  and  pistillate  flowers  are  on  different 
plants  (dioecious). 

When  a  flower  has  essential  organs  of  one 
kind  only,  that  is,  when  the  stamens  and  carpels 
are  on  separate  plants,  it  is  called  imperfect. 
We  have  already  had  a  specimen  of  an  imperfect 
flower  in  the  Begonia.  The  staminate  flowers 
of  the  Begonia  resemble  the  Meadow-Rue,  but 
the  pistillate  flowers  are  wholly  different.  In  the 
former  the  ovary  is  inferior  and  the  carpels  are 
united,  in  the  latter  they  are  akenes. 

These   flowers   ought   to   be  fully  described. 

1  Appendix,  p.  302. 


EARLY   SPRING   FLOWERS. 


75 


Each  flower  should  be  taken  for  a  separate  lesson, 
and  the  pupil  should  describe  it  as  fully  as  his 
age  and  knowledge  will  permit. 

We  will  compare  short  descriptions  of  these 
flowers  and  we  shall  find  that  they  differ  much 
less  than  in  the  other  comparison  that  we  made. 


CALYX. 
5  sepals, 
polysepalous. 


CALYX. 
5  sepals, 
polysepalous. 


CALYX. 

5  sepals, 
polysepalous. 


CALYX. 

4  sepals, 
polysepalous. 


HEPATICA. 

COROLLA.  STAMENS. 

None.  Many,  distinct 

on  receptacle. 

ANEMONE. 

COROLLA.  STAMENS. 

None.  Many,  distinct 

on  receptacle. 


COROLLA. 
None. 


CALTHA. 

STAMENS. 
Many,  distinct 
on  receptacle. 


MEADOW-RUE. 

COROLLA.  STAMENS. 

None.  Many,  distinct 

on  receptacle. 


PISTIL. 

Several  carpels, 
distinct,  one- 
seeded,  free. 


PISTIL. 

Many  carpels, 
distinct,  one- 
seeded,  free. 


PISTIL. 
5-9  carpels, 
distinct,  many- 
seeded,  free. 


PISTIL. 

4-15  carpels, 
distinct,  one- 
seeded,  dioecious. 


76  EAKLY   SPKLNG    FLOWERS. 

We  see  that  these  flowers  all  agree  essentially 
in  their  structure.  They  are  therefore  very 
nearly  related,  and  we  shall  find  on  referring  to 
our  schedule  that  they  all  belong  to  the  first 
family,  the  Crowfoot  family  (Ranumulacecv).  The 
flowers  are  dicotyledons,  poly  pet  alous,  and  the 
parts  are  inserted  under  the  ovary  and  all  distinct. 

There  is  no  better  practice  for  the  judgment 
than  in  this  comparison  of  plants,  seeing  how 
they  may  be  classified  in  groups,  the  closest 
relation  being  a  species  (though  this  is  sometimes 
divided  into  varieties),  the  next  grouping  being 
into  genera,  and  less  close  degrees  of  relation- 
ship being  expressed  by  the  division  into  families 
and  classes. 

In  the  little  description  given  above  we  see 
that  no  distinction  is  made  between  Anemone 
and  Hepatica.  The  seeming  calyx  of  one  an- 
swers to  the  three-leaved  involucre  of  the  other, 
and  the  structure  of  the  essential  organs  is  the 
same. 

The  Caltha  differs  in  its  carpels  being  follicles 
instead  of  akenes.  The  Meadow-Rue  has  sep- 
arated sexes,  but  otherwise  closely  resembles  the 


EARLY    SPRING   FLOWERS.  77 

rest,  and  a  very  nearly  allied  flower,  formerly 
placed  in  the  genus  Thalictrum,  but  now  known 
as  Anemonella  thcdictroides,  is  so  much  like  the 
Anemone,  that  it  is  known  as  Rue-anemone. 

We  shall  study  other  flowers  later  which  be- 
long to  the  SanunculacecBy  but  differ  greatly  in 
form.  Relationship  is  shown  more  clearly  in  the 
structure  of  the  essential  organs  than  in  the 
floral  envelopes,  because  the  latter  are  more 
subject  to  modification  from  the  visits  of  insects 
and  other  external  causes. 

BLOODKOOT    (Sanguinaria    Canadensis).1 

An  early  flower  that  is  in  every  way  excel- 
lent for  study  is  the  Bloodroot.  Give  the  pupils 
buds  as  well  as  flowers,  or  he  will  think  the 
flower  is  incomplete  like  the  Anemone,  or  else 
that  the  outer  circle  of  the  corolla  is  the  calyx. 
The  calyx  with  its  sepals  is  fugacious  ;  it  drops 
off  even  before  the  flower  opens. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  see  where  the  flower  got  its 
common  name.  The  orange-red  drops  of  juice 
always  appeal  to  the  imagination  and  remind  us 

1  Appendix,  p.  303. 


78  EARLY    SPRING   FLOWERS. 

of  the  old  tales  of  imprisoned  nymphs.  We 
seem  to  see  the  life  oozing  away  as  we  pick  the 
flowers.  If  the  scholars  can  dig  up  their  speci- 
mens for  themselves,  try  to  make  them  observe 
where  the  plant  had  thrown  up  its  shoot  the 
year  before,  and  from  where  next  year's  bud 
will  spring.  It  is  a  good  opportunity  for  a  little 
review  of  root  stocks  and  underground  stems. 

The  leaves  are  very  interesting.  They  are 
radical  and  come  up  in  a  roll  with  the  flower- 
bud  within  (Fig.  9).  This  always  delights  the 
children.  Sometimes  we  find  the  flowers  in  pairs. 
Close  to  the  ground  and  beneath  it  are  the  scaly, 
papery  bracts  which  sheathe  the  season's  growth. 
How  our  hands  look  after  we  have  been  picking 
the  flowers ! 

We  have  noticed  the  fleeting  calyx.  The 
corolla  is  made  up  of  beautiful  pure  white  petals 
in  two  or  more  circles.  When  there  are  two  cir- 
cles they  alternate,  but  the  petals  belonging  to 
the  third  circle  halve  the  distance  between  the 
others.  The  inner  petals  are  a  little  smaller. 
The  petals  are  separate  and  are  free  from  the 
other  parts  of  the  flower  (Fig.  9,  4). 


FIG.  9.  — Bloodroot.  1,2.  Whole  plant.  3.  Open  flower.  4.  Vertical  section. 
5.  Leaf.  6.  Stamen.  7.  Ovary.  8.  Vertical  section  of  ovary. 
9.  Pod.  10.  Pod,  after  dehiscence. 


EARLY    SPRING    FLOWERS.  79 

The  stamens  are  many,  distinct,  on  the  recepta- 
cle. The  anthers  are  innate  (Fig.  9,  6). 

The  pistil  is  of  two  united  carpels,  making  a 
one-celled  ovary,  with  the  ovules  on  the  walls 
(Fig.  9,  7,  s).  This  is  parietal  placentation. 
There  are  two  parietal  placentae  and  a  sessile, 
two-lobed  stigma. 

The  pod  of  the  Bloodroot  splits  between  the 
carpels,  leaving  the  placentae  behind.  The  two 
pieces  which  split  away  are  called  valves  (Fig. 
9,  9,  10).  The  seeds  are  crested. 

Where  does  the  Bloodroot  belong  on  our 
schedule  ?  It  is  a  dicotyledon  and  polypetalous, 
and  the  petals  are  under  the  ovary.  The  parts 
are  all  distinct  too,  except  that  the  pistil  has  its 
carpels  united,  so  we  must  look  for  it  near  the 
beginning  of  our  schedule.  The  flowers  are 
regular,  the  parts  in  twos  and  fours,  the  ovary 
one-celled,  and  the  ovules  on  its  walls.  We 
place  it,  therefore,  in  the  Poppy  family  (Papa- 
veracece).  Other  characteristic  points  that  mark 
the  family  are  the  sessile  stigmas  and  the  fuga- 
cious sepals. 


80  EARLY    SPRING    FLOWERS. 

SPRING  BEAUTY  (Claytonia   Virginica).1 

The  root  of  the  Claytonia  is  from  a  small, 
deep  tuber.  There  is  no  great  difference  be- 
tween a  tuber  and  a  rootstock.  A  tuber  is  a 
thickened  rootstock  with  buds  upon  it ;  the  Po- 
tato is  the  most  familiar  example. 

The  upper  part  of  the  stem  is  simple  and  has 
one  pair  of  opposite  leaves.  The  inflorescence 
is  a  loose,  terminal  raceme.  We  had  an  example 
of  a  raceme  in  the  Hyacinth,  which  was  very 
densely  flowered.  A  raceme  is  a  cluster  in  which 
the  flowers  are  arranged  on  pedicels  on  a  com- 
mon stem,  with  the  youngest  flowers  at  the  top, 
The  whole  flower-stalk  is  called  a  peduncle,  and 
the  stalk  to  each  flower  is  a  pedicel.  Other  ex- 
amples of  racemes  are  Lilies  of  the  Valley,  Solo- 
mon's Seal,  and  Wild  Cherry. 

The  stamens  mature  before  the  style,  as  in 
the  TropaBolum  and  Pelargonium.  After  dis- 
charging their  pollen,  they  bend  back  closely 
against  the  corolla,  and  the  branches  of  the  style 
which  are  stigmatic  on  the  inside  open.  Hence 
the  flower  is  cross-fertilized. 

1  Appendix,  p.  304. 


EARLY    SPRING    FLOWERS.  81 

The  ovary  is  of  a  different  type  from  any  we 
have  seen.  There  are  three  carpels,  but  the 
ovules  are  neither  on  the  walls  nor  in  the 
middle,  but  rise  from  the  base. 

The  flower  is  a  dicotyledon,  polypetalous  and 
hypogynous.  It  therefore  belongs  near  the  be- 
ginning of  our  schedule.  It  belongs  to  the  Portu- 
laca  family,  distinguished  by  the  regular  flowers 
with  two  sepals,  five  petals,  and  one-celled  pod 
with  the  ovules  rising  from  the  base.  A  very 
common  weed  belonging  to  this  family  is  the 
Purslane,  or  "  pusley  "  (Portulaca  oleracea),  hated 
of  gardeners. 

THE  PISTIL. 

The  word  pistil  is  used  in  two  ways.  For 
example,  in  a  flower  with  separated  carpels,  like 
the  Anemone,  the  term  pistil  may  be  applied  to 
each  separate  ovary  with  its  style  and  stigma,  or 
to  the  whole  seed-bearing  portion  of  the  flower 
(gyncecium).  In  the  first  case  the  Anemone 
would  be  described  as  having  many  pistils. .  In 
the  second  case  it  would  be  said  to  have  a  pistil  of 
many  distinct  carpels.  Dr.  Gray  uses  the  former 


82  EARLY   SPRING    FLOWERS. 

method,  but  I  have  preferred  the  latter,  because 
I  have  found  it  more  simple.1  In  thus  departing 
from  our  text-book  we  shall  create  great  con- 
fusion, unless  the  point  is  made  perfectly  clear. 

A  pistil  is  made  up  of  carpels,  just  as  the 
calyx  is  made  up  of  sepals  and  the  corolla  of 
petals.  As  in  the  calyx  and  corolla  the  parts 
may  be  distinct  or  united,  so  in  the  pistil  the 
carpels  may  be  distinct,  when  the  pistil  is  termed 
apocarpous,  or  united,  when  it  is  syncarpous.  As 
a  flower  is  a  branch,  the  sepals,  petals,  stamens, 
and  carpels  are  modified  leaves.  This  theoreti- 
cal explanation  of  the  flower  is  for  some  classes 
a  help  at  the  start,  and  for  others  more  helpful 
as  a  conclusion  reached  after  a  good  deal  of 
study.  On  this  point  the  teacher  must  exercise 
his  own  judgment. 

1  In  the  method  adopted  here  the  word  pistil  is  taken  to  mean 
the  whole  seed-bearing  portion  of  the  flower.  It  therefore  in- 
cludes all  the  carpels,  and  corresponds  in  usage  to  the  term 
calyx,  including  the  sepals,  corolla,  including  the  petals,  and 
andrcecium,  including  the  stamens.  In  Dr.  Gray's  method,  the 
term  pistil  includes  a  single  carpel,  or  all  the  carpels,  according 
to  whether  they  are  separate  or  united.  The  term  carpel  always 
represents  a  single  modified  leaf,  and  corresponds  in  usage  to 
the  terms  sepal,  petal,  and  stamen. 


EARLY    SPRING   FLOWERS.  83 

A  pistil  is  either  simple  or  compound.  It  is 
simple  when  it  consists  of  a  single  carpel.  So 
far,  all  our  pistils  have  been  compound ;  that  is, 
they  have  consisted  of  two  or  more  carpels. 
But  in  some  of  them  the  carpels  are  united,  as 
in  the  Tulip,  Tropaeolum,  Begonia,  etc.,  and  in 
others  distinct,  as  in  the  Anemone,  Hepatica,  and 
Caltha. 

The  parts  of  a  complete  syncarpous  pistil,  or 
separate  carpel,  are  ovary,  style,  and  stigma, 
and  of  these  parts  only  the  ovary  and  the 
stigma  are  essential.  The  ovary  is  essential, 
because  it  holds  the  seeds,  and  the  stigma  is 
necessary,  because  through  this  part  of  the  pis- 
til the  pollen  tubes  descend  to  fertilize  the 
ovules,  "its  form  is  very  variable  and  is 
always  closely  connected  with  the  way  in  which 
the  pollen  is  conveyed  to  it,  whether  by  insects 
or  other  means,  and  can  only  be  rightly  under- 
stood by  reference  to  these  circumstances." 

The  ovules  are  borne  generally  on  the  edges 
of  the  carpels.  A  placenta  Is  the  place  which 

1  Goebel's  Outlines  of  Classification  and  Morphology  of 
Plants,  p.  380. 


84  EARLY   SPRING    FLOWERS. 

bears  the  ovules.  The  placentae  may  be  either 
on  the  walls  of  the  ovary  (parietal)  or  in  the 
centre  (central  or  axile). 

A  good  way  to  illustrate  these  various  forms 
of  the  pistil  and  to  show  how  they  may  be 
formed  from  single  carpels,  is  to  give  the 
scholars  leaves  to  represent  carpels  and  to  ask 
them  to  put  them  together  to  make  a  pistil. 
Let  us  take  several  leaves,  double  each  one  to- 
gether, turning  the  margins  inward,  and  fasten 
them  to  our  receptacle  separately.  We  have 
then  the  arrangement  of  the  pistil  of  the  Caltha, 
remembering  that  the  ovules  are  borne  on  the 
•incurved  margins  of  the  leaf.  That  is  an  apo- 
carpous pistil.  Now  take  two  leaves  and  place 
them  together  by  uniting  their  margins.  We 
shall  then  have  a  one-celled  ovary  of  two  car- 
pels, with  the  placentae  on  the  walls.  It  will 
be  a  pistil  of  two  united  carpels,  with  a  one- 
celled  ovary  with  two  parietal  placentae.  We 
have  an  example  of  this  in  the  Bloodroot 
(Fig.  9).  Now  let  us  double  the  leaves  together, 
as  in  the  first  case,  and  then  unite  them  by 
their  joined  margins.  We  then  have  a  com- 


EARLY   SPRING    FLOWERS.  85 

pound  pistil  of  two  carpels  with  a  two-celled 
ovary  and  a  central  placenta.  As  there  is  a  row 
of  ovules  on  each  margin  of  the  carpel,  we 
should  normally  have  two  rows  of  ovules  in 
each  cell.  We  have  not  had  a  flower  with  a 
pistil  exactly  like  this,  but  if,  instead  of  two,  we 
take  three  carpels,  we  have  the  arrangement  of 
the  Tulip,  the  Hyacinth,  the  Snowdrop,  the 
Crocus,  and  the  Begonia. 

There  is  still  another  thing  that  we  can  do. 
We  can  join  the  carpels  for  a  little  way  only  at 
the  base.  We  have  an  example  in  the  Spring 
Beauty,  which  has  three  carpels  with  the  ovules 
rising  from  the  base.  In  some  of  the  Pink  fam- 
ily the  carpels  are  united  to  the  axis  below, 
while  they  are  free  above,  but  in  some  genera 
of  this  family  the  ovules  are  probably  produced 
directly  from  the  axis,  not  from  the  united 
edges  of  the  carpels.1  This  free  column,  hold- 
ing the  ovules,  while  the  carpels  form  a  closed 

1  This  is  a  much  disputed  point.  See  note  in  Gray's  Struc- 
tural Botany,  p.  267;  also  Goebel's  text-book,  pp.  375-377.  The 
latter  says  there  are  genera  in  the  Caryophyllece  in  which  it  is 
more  probable  that  the  placenta  is  axial  (that  is,  belonging  to 
the  axis)  ;  others  where  it  seems  to  belong  rather  to  "the  carpels. 


86  EARLY   SPRING   FLOWERS. 

ovary  about  it,  makes  a  free  central  placenta, 
of  which  we  shall  have  examples  in  the  Chick- 
weed  and  other  members  of  the  Caryophyllacece. 

All  the  flowers  we  have  been  considering 
have  a  closed  pistil  (angiospermous).  The  Pines, 
however,  have  an  open  pistil.  We  can  repre- 
sent it  by  taking  an  open  leaf,  and  imagining  it 
to  bear  one  or  more  ovules  near  the  base.  The 
scales  of  cones  are  such  open  carpels  and  the 
seeds  they  bear  are  developed  from  naked  ovules. 
There  is  no  stigma  at  all  and  the  pollen  is  blown 
directly  to  the  ovules.  Such  a  pistil  as  this  is 
called  gymnospermous. 

The  nature,  position,  and  form  of  the  ovule 
is  rather  a  difficult  subject  for  the  beginner  and 
it  is  best  to  touch  it  lightly.  The  various  terms 
employed  in  the  description  will  be  found  in  the 
text-book. 

Grays  Lessons,  300-322. 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


V. 
EARLY    SPRING   FLOWERS.—  continued. 

MAYFLOWER,    TRAILING    ARBUTUS     (Epigcea 
repens).1 

THIS  plant  is  not  very  fitly  named,  for  it 
comes  to  us  in  April,  and  in  most  seasons  the 
first  of  May  finds  it  on  the  wane. 

It  is  a  wonderfully  beautiful  flower  in  its 
structure,  as  well  as  when  we  look  at  it  from 
an  outside  point  of  view. 

The  plant  is  woody,  trailing  and  creeping, 
and  covered  with  rusty  brown  hairs  (Fig.  10,  i). 

In  our  Manual  the  flower-clusters  are  described 
as  axillary,  but  they  are  really  terminal  (Fig. 
10,  2).  Each  flower  is  surrounded  with  an  in- 
volucre of  three  or  four  bracts  (Fig.  9,  3). 

The  inside  of  the  corolla  is  thickly  covered 
with  fine,  soft  hairs,  which  may  serve  to  protect 

1  Appendix,  p.  307. 


88  EARLY   SPRING    FLOWERS. 

the  nectar  from  the  rain,  and  perhaps  to  keep 
out  unwelcome  visitors. 

The  flower  has  two  forms  in  its  stamens  and 
style.  One  kind  of  style  has  five  short  stigmas 
and  looks  almost  club-shaped  (Fig.  9,  4,  5,  o). 
In  another  flower  the  five  stigmas  are  long  and 
spread  widely  out  like  a  little  star  (Fig.  9,  8,  9, 
10,  11).  The  top  of  the  style  spreads  out  into 
a  five-lobed  ring  or  collar  beneath  these  lobes. 
In  the  flowers  with  long  stigmas  the  stamens 
are  apt  to  be  short  and  generally  without  an- 
thers. This  would  indicate  that  they  are  the 
fertile  flowers,  and  such  has  been  found  to  be 
the  case.  I  have  occasionally  found  flowers 
where  the  stamens  were  entirely  suppressed. 
In  flowers  with  short  stigmas  the  stamens  are 
more  often  long  (Fig.  9,  4,  7). 

Dr.  Gray  says  that  there  are  two  lengths  of 
style,  and  that  each  kind  of  stigma  is  found  on 
both  the  long  and  short  styles.  This  would 
make  four  kinds  of  flowers.  If  it  were  the  rule 
that  there  were  no  stamens  in  the  flowers  with 
long  stigmas,  the  flower  would  be  dioecious.  If 
the  two  lengths  of  style  always  corresponded  to 


EARLY   SPRING    FLOWERS.  89 

the  two  lengths  of  stamens  the  flower  would  be 
dimorphous.1  But  it  is  not  exactly  either. 

My  observations  on  the  flower  differ  from  Dr. 
Gray's,  in  that  I  have  never  seen  a  flower  with  a 
short  style.2  Once  I  found  an  apparently  per- 
fect flower  with  long  stamens  and  long  stigmas. 
The  flower  evidently  varies  in  different  locali- 
ties. 

This  is  a  very  interesting  case,  for  it  shows  a 
flower  which  is  on  the  way  to  become  either 
dioecious  or  dimorphous,  and  is  not  perfectly 
adapted  to  either  mode  of  cross-fertilization.  It 
is  evident  that  the  conditions  are  not  favorable 
to  fertilization,  as  the  flower  seldom  sets  seed. 
Here  is  an  opportunity  for  the  pupils  in  any 
New  England  country  town  to  do  some  real 
investigating,  for  the  flower  is  very  imperfectly 
understood.  There  are  regions  in  which  the 

1  Dr.  Halsteacl  in  notes  on  Epigaea  repens,  in  the  Torrey  Bul- 
letin, for  August,  1891,  says  that  the  dimorphism  of  the  flower 
is  not  far  advanced,  for  there  is  no  difference  in  the  size  of  the 
pollen  of  the  short  and  long  stamens,  as  is  found  in  truly  dimor- 
phic flowers. 

2  American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,  July,  1876,  p.  74.    See 
also  Lester  F.  Ward.    American  Naturalist,  XIV,  p.  198. 


90  EARLY   SPRING   FLOWERS. 

Mayflower  habitually  sets  seed,  and  I  am  in- 
clined to  think  that  in  almost  any  locality  the 
capsules  could  be  found  by  careful  search.  The 
flowers  are  all  alike  on  the  same  plant,  so  far 
as  I  have  examined,  so  that  flowers  young 
enough  to  see  the  structure  of  the  stamens 
might  be  found  on  a  seed-bearing  plant,  or 
might  be  marked  and  studied  from  year  to 
year. 

There  is  a  difference  also  in  the  size  and 
appearance  of  the  flowers.  The  fertile  ones  are 
smaller  and  do  not  open  quite  so  widely. 

The  anthers  of  the  Mayflower  are  different 
from  the  typical  anthers  of  the  Heath  family. 
We  saw  in  Azalea  that  these  dehisced  from  little 
holes  in  the  top  of  the  cell.  The  anthers  of  the 
Epigaea  dehisce  longitudinally.  The  whole  look 
of  the  plant,  the  rusty-hairy  stem,  leathery 
leaves,  and  so  forth,  would  tell  any  one  ac- 
customed to  classify  plants  that  it  belonged  to 
the  Heath  family  (Ericaceae), 

The  Epigaea  is  a  very  instructive  example  of 
the  fact,  too  often  forgotten,  that  the  evolution 
of  new  forms  of  flowers  is  not  a  completed 


EARLY    SPRING   FLOWERS.  91 

process,  but  that  the  same  causes  that  have  pro- 
duced changes  in  the  past  are  producing  them 
to-day. 

COMMON  BLUE  VIOLET  ( Viola  cucullata).1 

We  seem  to  have  waited  a  long  time  before 
taking  up  our  dear  spring  flower  which  is  found 
everywhere  and  which  every  one  loves,  the  Violet. 
But  the  flower  is  not  so  fleeting  as  the  Anemone 
and  the  Bloodroot,  and  will  wait  till  we  have 
time  to  examine  it  carefully  at  our  leisure.  If 
we  pull  up  the  common  blue  Violet,  we  find  that 
it  has,  as  so  many  of  our  spring  flowers  have, 
an  underground  stem.  This  stem  is  a  thick 
rootstock  with  fleshy  teeth.  The  teeth  are  the 
traces  of  leaves.  We  know  this  from  seeing 
how  the  new  shoots  spring  from  their  axils. 

The  leaves  have  very  large  stipules.  We  have 
had  no  plant,  as  yet,  with  such  striking  stipules 
as  this. 

The  calyx  has  separate  sepals  with  lobes  pro- 
duced backward,  which  are  called  auricles. 

The    corolla  has  a  spur  on  the  lower  petal. 

1  Appendix,  p.  308. 


92  EARLY   SPRING   FLOWERS. 

We  know  from  our  study  of  the  Tropseolum  what 
its  use  may  be.  If  we  cut  off  the  end  of  the 
spur  and  pinch  it,  we  shall  see  the  nectar  oozing 
out.  There  is  not  much  nectar  in  the  spring 
Violets ;  we  can  find  a  great  deal  more  in  the 
cultivated  Pansy.  Whatever  markings  the  flower 
has  lead  to  the  spur,  and  are  followed  by  the 
insects.  These  nectar-guides  are  much  more 
conspicuous  in  the  Pansy  than  in  most  of  the 
common  Violets.1 

The  two  lower  stamens  have  appendages  which 
project  into  the  spur  (Fig.  11,  s),  while  the  three 
upper  stamens  are  without  them  (Fig.  11,  4). 
These  spurs  of  the  stamens  secrete  the  nectar, 
which  runs  down  into  the  little  pocket  ready  to 
receive  it.  The  hungry  insects  find  the  nectar 
ready  for  them  there.  But  we  know  that  they 
have  to  pay  for  their  meal  by  carrying  pollen  to 
another  stigma.  How  is  this  accomplished  ? 

Looking  carefully  at  a  flower,  we  see  that  the 
anthers  are  joined  to  the  inner  face  of  the  fila- 
ment, and  that  each  filament  is  extended  beyond 

1  Notes  on  the  fertilization  of  the  Wild  Pansy  will  be  found 
in  Nature,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  49,  50,  121,  143,  and  202. 


Fia.  11.  —  Common  Blue  Violet.  1.  Whole  plant.  2.  Section  of  flower. 
3.  Lower  stamen.  4.  Upper  stamen.  5.  Cleistogaraous  flower. 
6.  Diagram.  7.  Section  of  Pansy.  8.  Style  of  Pansy. 


94  EARLY   SPRING    FLOWERS. 

stigma  is  a  hole  filled  with  a  sticky  fluid,  and 
just  beneath  it  is  a  shelf,  or  lip.  The  style 
has  a  twist  at  the  base,  and  is  flexible,  like  a 
hinge,  and  the  stigma  is  lateral,  just  beneath  the 
tip  of  the  style.  When  the  bee  goes  into  a 
flower  his  head  touches  the  sticky  stigma,  but 
when  he  comes  out  his  head  hits  the  shelf  and 
turns  the  stigma  upward,  so  that  he  does  not 
touch  it.1  We  can  easily  experiment  with  any 
sharp  instrument,  and  see  how  prettily  the  lip 
acts  in  turning  the  stigma  out  of  the  way  when 
the  tool  is  drawn  out. 

Alfred  Bennett  in  the  article  in  Nature,  re- 
ferred to  in  the  note  on  page  92,  thinks  that  the 
Wild  Pansy,  or  Hearts-Ease,  is  fertilized  by  tiny 
thrips  rather  than  by  bees.  Observations  of  the 
insect  visitors  of  the  cultivated  Pansy,  or  any  of 
the  wild  Violets,  will  be  interesting. 

It  seems  rather  strange  that,  after  all  this 
delicate  mechanism  to  secure  cross-fertilization, 
the  Blue  Violet  should  not  produce  most  of  its 
seeds  in  its  conspicuous  flowers.  If  we  pull  up 
a  whole  plant  and  examine  its  base,  we  shall 

1  Lectures  on  the  Physiology  of  Plants,     Sachs,     Page  794. 


EARLY   SPRING   FLOWERS.  95 

find  flowers  which  look  like  small  green  buds. 
One  of  them  can  be  seen  on  the  plant  in  Fig.  11. 
A  vertical  section  of  one  of  these  buds,  placed 
under  the  lens  (Fig.  11,  5),  will  disclose  an  ovary 
full  of  ovules,  surmounted  by  a  hooked  style, 
and  surrounding  it,  two  stamens  with  possibly 
rudiments  of  others,  and  perhaps  a  petal  or  two. 
This  is  a  closed  flower  which  never  opens,  but 
ripens  its  seeds  in  the  dark.  The  pollen-grains 
send  out  tubes  to  the  ovary  without  leaving  the 
anther.  In  the  Blue  Violet  these  closed  flowers 
produce  most  of  the  good  seeds  of  the  plant.1 
They  are  called  deistogamic  or  deistogamous 
flowers.  They  occur  also  in  some  species  of 
Oxalis,  in  the  Touch-me-not  (Impatiens),  and 
one  of  our  Poly  galas.  Many  of  them  are  subter- 
ranean and  ripen  their  seeds  beneath  the  ground. 
A  list  will  be  found  of  the  species  containing 
cleistogamic  flowers  in  Darwin's  Forms  of 
Flowers.2 


1  Reader  in  Botany.    V.    Close-fertilized  Flowers. 

2  The  Different  Forms  of  Flowers  on  Plants  of  the  Same 
Species.    By  Charles  Darwin.    New  York,  D.  Appleton  &  Co., 
1887.     Page  310. 


96  EARLY   SPRING    FLOWERS. 

The  Violet  has  three  carpels  and  there  are 
three  parietal  placentae  in  the  one-celled  ovary. 
The  placentae  are  peculiar  in  covering  the  whole 
surface  of  the  carpels  instead  of  the  margins 
only.  Many  species  of  .Violet  throw  their  seeds 
by  a  contraction  of  the  edges  of  the  carpels 
when  the  pod  splits  open.  The  Blue  Violet  is 
said  to  do  this. 

The  Violet  belongs  among  the  first  families 
on  our  schedule,  as  it  is  a  dicotyledon  and  poly- 
petalous,  with  hypogynous  corolla  and  stamens. 
The  family  is  distinguished  by  its  irregular,  one- 
spurred  corolla,  the  adnate,  introrse,  connivent 
stamens,  and  the  one-celled  pod  with  three  pla- 
centae on  the  walls. 

BLUETS,  INNOCENCE,  QUAKER  LADY,  BLUE-EYED 
BABIES,  BRIGHT-EYE  (Houstonia  ccerulea).1 

The  number  of  common  names  for  this  widely 
spread  little  flower  would  indicate  that  it  has 
been  loved  by  many  generations  of  children. 
Where  it  grows  it  is  often  found  in  great  abun- 

1  Appendix,  p.  309. 


FIG.   12.  —  Houstonia   caerulea.      1.   Whole  plant   (reduced).      2.   Long-styled 
flower.    3.  Short-styled  flower  (magnified).    4.  Diagram. 


EARLY    SPRING    FLOWERS.  97 

dance,  covering  the  meadows  with  a  white 
carpet.  It  is  a  peculiarly  delicate  and  refined 
flower,  as  the  names  show.  Beginners  will  find 
it  too  small  to  examine  very  satisfactorily,  ex- 
cept in  the  more  obvious  points. 

The  inflorescence  is  determinate ;  each  flower 
ends  the  stem,  and  there  are  one  or  two  side  pe- 
duncles from  the  nearest  axils  bearing  younger 
flowers.  This  inflorescence  is  called  a  cyme. 

The  colors  of  the  corolla  vary  a  good  deal, 
some  flowers  being  nearly  sky-blue  and  others 
shading  gradually  down  to  white.  The  parts  of 
the  flower  are  in  fours. 

The  flower  is  an  excellent  example  of  a  dimor- 
phous condition  of  style  and  stamens.  Let  the 
pupils  examine  a  number  of  flowers  very  care- 
fully and  sort  out  those  which  are  exactly  alike. 
Some  of  them  will  show  the  stamens  in  the 
throat,  and  some  the  two-parted  style.  Making 
vertical  sections  we  find  the  state  of  things  rep- 
resented in  Fig.  12.  Darwin  has  proved  that 
such  flowers  are  fully  fertile  only  when  the  long- 
styled  flowers  are  fertilized  with  pollen  from 
the  long  stamens,  or  the  short  style  receives  the 


98  EARLY    SPRING   FLOWERS. 

pollen  from  the  short  stamens.1  We  have 
another  example  of  a  dimorphous  flower  that 
can  be  generally  obtained  in  the  Bouvardia  of 
our  greenhouses. 

The  ovary  is  inferior.  We  place  the  flower, 
therefore,  in  the  first  part  of  our  gamopetalous 
division.  It  has  opposite  leaves  and  the  sta- 
mens are  as  many  as  the  lobes  of  the  corolla. 
This  might  seem  to  belong  either  to  the  Honey- 
suckle or  to  the  Madder  family,  but  it  has  stipules, 
which  places  it  in  the  latter.  The  Bouvardia 
belongs  to  the  same  family.  The  Partridge- 
Berry  belongs  here  also,  and  it  is  very  common 
in  this  family  to  find  dimorphous  flowers.2 

DOG-TOOTH  VIOLET  (Erythronium  Americanum).3 

If  you  ever  tried  to  dig  up  a  Dog-Tooth  Violet 
you  will  certainly  begin  by  writing  in  your  de- 
scription, "Root  fibrous  from  a  very  deep  bulb." 
How  this  root  comes  to  be  so  deep  I  do  not 
know;  whether  it  is  gradually  drawn  into  the 

1  Forms  of  Flowers,  pp.  132,  254.     Chapter  VI  sums  up  the 
general  conclusions  on  heterostyled  plants. 

2  Reader  in  Botany.     VI.  3  Appendix,  p.  311. 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


FIG.  13,  —  Dog-tooth  Violet.     1.  Flower-stalk.     2.  Base  of  stem  and  root.    3,  4.  Flower. 
5.  Flower  with  five  leaves  and  two  stamens  removed.    6.  Diagram. 


EARLY    SPRING   FLOWERS.  99 

ground  by  the  contraction  of  the  underground 
stem,  or  whether,  as  the  new  bulbs  are  formed 
beneath  the  old  ones  (Fig.  13,  2),  it  is  only  in  a 
series  of  years  that  the  bulb  becomes  so  very 
deep.  This  is  a  good  subject  for  investigation. 
The  leaves  are  mottled.  They  are  radical  and 
sheathe  the  base  of  the  one-flowered  scape,  the 
first  leaf  being  wrapped  quite  around  the  second. 

In  the  flower  we  recognize  that  we  have  got 
back  to  the  plan  of  three  (Fig.  13,  4,  o),  and  if 
we  have  already  noticed  that  the  leaves  are 
parallel,  we  shall  say  that  we  have  probably  a 
monocotyledon.  The  flower  is  very  easy  to  de- 
scribe, but  there  are  some  points  about  it  which 
might  be  overlooked.  The  petals  have  a  callous 
tooth  on  each  side  near  the  base,  and  the  style 
has  generally,  but  not  always,  a  twist  at  the 
base  that  reminds  us  of  the  Pansy  (Fig.  13,  5). 

If  we  examine  a  good  many  flowers  we  shall 
find  some  with  yellow  and  some  with  red-brown 
stamens.  I  suspect  that  one  of  these  kinds  is 
fertile  and  the  other  sterile,  but  I  have  never 
seen  the  subject  treated,  and  it  would  be  a  good 
one  for  the  pupils  to  investigate.  Let  them 


100  EARLY   SPRING   FLOWERS. 

cover  certain  plants  with  gauze  to  keep  out  in- 
sects and  leave  others  free,  having  marked  the 
colors  of  the  stamens  by  tying  different  colored 
threads  around  the  plants.  In  this  way  they 
can  find  out  whether  cross-fertilization  is  neces- 
sary, and,  if  so,  by  artificial  fertilization  they 
can  discover  which  flowers  are  fertile. 

Another  point  of  interest  is  the  large  number 
of  plants  which  do  not  flower  in  comparison 
with  those  that  do.  When  the  plants  are  trans- 
planted this  tendency  is  increased.  I  have 
never  been  able  to  make  them  flower  in  cultiva- 
tion. I  do  not  know  why  this  is  so. 

The  pupils  ought  to  have  no  difficulty  in  placing 
this  flower  in  the  Lily  family,  after  the  lessons 
on  the  Tulip,  Hyacinth,  and  allied  flowers. 

The  ovary  is  superior,  the  parts  of  the  perianth 
colored  alike,  and  the  stamens  six  in  number. 

STAR-FLOWER  (Trientalis  Americana}.1 

This  flower  is  often  found  growing  beside  the 
Wood-Anemone,  and  as  children,  we  used  to  call 
it  Star- Anemone,  from  its  resemblance. 

1  Appendix,  p.  305. 


EARLY  SPRING  FLOWERS.  101 

The  rootstock  is  very  slender,  long,  and  creep- 
ing. It  throws  up  simple,  erect  stems,  which 
bear  a  few  scattered  leaves  below  and  a  crowded, 
whorl-like  cluster  at  the  summit.  The  flowers 
spring  from  this  cluster  and  terminate  the  stem, 
either  singly,  or  several  together.  They  are  on 
slender  stalks  and  are  very  delicate. 

They  are  star-shaped,  with  a  flat,  spreading 
corolla,  and  stamens  opposite  its  lobes.  The 
stamens  have  slender  filaments  and  oblong 
anthers,  which  roll  up  after  flowering.  The 
ovary  has  a  free  central  placenta,  a  column  in 
the  middle  bearing  the  ovules,  unconnected  with 
the  sides  of  the  ovary. 

We  shall  place  the  flower  among  the  gamo- 
petalous  families  with  superior  ovary  and  regu- 
lar corolla.  We  may  know  the  Primrose  family 
(Primulacece)  by  the  opposite  stamens,  and  the 
free  central  placenta. 


VI. 
THE   FOREST   TREES   IN   BLOSSOM. 

WE  have  seen  that  the  reason  why  certain 
flowers,  as  Hepatica,  Bloodroot,  and  Epigsea,  are 
able  to  develop  before  the  leaves,  is  that  the  buds 
are  already  in  a  high  state  of  development,  and 
need  only  the  warmth  and  moisture  of  spring  to 
complete  their  growth.  The  food  is  already 
stored  in  rootstock  and  stem.  This  develop- 
ment of  the  flower-buds  during  the  previous 
summer  may  explain  why  fall  flowers  of  these 
spring  plants  are  sometimes  found. 

The  flowers  on  early  blossoming  trees  are  also 
prepared  and  packed  away  in  the  buds  during 
the  previous  season.  Examining  these  trees,  we 
are  struck  at  once  by  the  great  number  of  them 
with  the  flowers  arranged  in  long,  scaly  spikes 
called  catkins.  The  Willow,  Poplar,  Birch, 
Hazel,  Alder,  Oak,  Walnut,  Hornbeam,  Beech, 
102 


THE    FOREST   TREES    IN   BLOSSOM.  103 

Pine,  Larch,  and  many  others  are  so  arranged, 
at  least  as  to  the  staminate  flowers.  There  is  a 
good  reason  for  these  long,  drooping  clusters  of 
stamens.  All  these  trees,  with  a  single  excep- 
tion, the  Willow,  are  fertilized  by  the  wind. 
The  catkins  are  swayed  by  every  breeze,  and 
when  the  pollen  is  in  the  right  state,  clouds  of 
the  fine  yellow  dust  are  borne  away  when  we 
shake  them.  The  pollen  is  light,  abundant,  and 
smooth,  and  the  flowers  are  not  colored  or 
scented  to  render  them  attractive  to  insects. 

If  the  dense  screens  of  leaves  were  developed 
before  the  blossoms,  they  would  interfere  very 
greatly  with  the  pollen  reaching  the  fertile  flow- 
ers. The  flowers  of  the  Chestnut,  it  is  true,  de- 
velop after  the  leaves,  but  the  conspicuous  tassels 
hang  at  the  very  ends  of  the  branches  where  they 
are  blown  to  and  fro,  and  the  fertile  flowers  are 
above  these  clusters. 

In  wind-fertilized  trees  where  the  flowers  are 
not  grouped  in  catkins  the  stamens  generally 
hang  out  on  long,  drooping  filaments,  or  the 
flowers  are  on  long,  slender  pedicels.  The  wind- 
fertilized  flowers  of  grasses  are  always  carried 


104  THE   FOREST   TREES   IN   BLOSSOM. 

up  in  the  air  above  the  surrounding  mat  of 
foliage. 

The  wind-fertilized,  unisexual  flowers  of  the 
trees  just  mentioned  are  of  a  lower  type  than 
the  flowers  we  have  .been  studying.  On  our 
schedule  they  are  placed  among  the  apetalous 
flowers,  and  we  shall  find  most  of  them  in  the 
group,  "flowers  in  catkins."  Another  large 
group  that  we  shall  glance  at  are  the  Ever- 
greens. They  belong  to  the  class  of  Gymno- 
sperms,  or  naked-seeded  plants.  The  ovules  in 
this  group  are  naked,  and  are  borne  on  an  open 
carpel,  which  is  sometimes  wanting. 

We  will  now  study  some  of  the  trees  in  detail. 

WILLOW  (Salix). 

The  Willow  is  one  of  the  earliest  growing 
things  to  put  forth  its  buds.  We  may  even  find 
the  downy  catkins  bursting  from  the  scales  in 
February.  Some  kinds  of  willows  put  forth  their 
blossoms  before  the  leaves  in  April,  some  with  the 
leaves  in  May.  Some  even  blossom  in  June  after 
the  leaves  are  fully  developed,  so  that  we  can 
study  them  at  almost  any  time  during  the  spring. 


THE  FOREST  TREES  IN  BLOSSOM.       105 

The  Willows  are  high  trees  or  low  shrubs, 
with  long,  tough  roots,  flexible  branches,  tough 
bark,  simple  stipulate  leaves,  and  flowers  in  termi- 
nal clusters,  or  lateral  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves 
of  the  preceding  year.  The  pupils  have  probably 
often  noticed  the  flexibility  and  elasticity  of  the 
twigs,  and  have  utilized  this  property  for  switches 
and  as  a  substitute  for  cord.  Most  children  have 
woven  willow  twigs  together  for  baskets  or 
some  other  childish  use.  An  interesting  prop- 
erty of  the  Willow  is  its  capability  of  growth 
from  cuttings.  Twigs  which  fall  to  the  ground 
from  the  trees  sometimes  take  root  and  grow. 
The  tree  possesses  wonderful  vitality,  and  when 
cut  down  the  stump  is  soon  covered  with  a  thick 
growth  of  new  twigs  which  grow  rapidly  into 
strong  branches.  Surely  every  country  child 
has  made  its  playhouse  in  some  such  old  gnarled 
tree.  How  often  too  we  have  tried  in  vain  to 
break  one  of  the  twigs  and  learned  experimen- 
tally the  extreme  toughness  of  the  inner  bark. 

The  flowers  of  the  Willow  grow  in  long,  close, 
bracted  clusters,  with  one  flower  under  each 
bract,  or  scale.  These  clusters  are  called  cat- 


106  THE   FOREST   TREES    IN    BLOSSOM. 

kins,  or  aments.  There  are  two  kinds  of  cat- 
kins, staminate  and  pistillate,  which  are  found 
on  different  plants. 

One  kind  of  flower  has  generally  two  stamens ; 
the  other  kind  consists  of  a  pistil  of  two  carpels. 
Each  flower  is  covered  by  a  bract,  and  has  a  gland 
at  the  base  (Fig.  14,  a).  This  is  all  that  can  be 
found  in  the  flower.  There  is  nothing  answer- 
ing to  calyx  or  corolla.  The 
pupils  may  ask  why  the 
bract  does  not  represent  one 
of  the  floral  envelopes.  By 
FIG.  14.- staminate  and  pistil-  this  time  they  should  be  ac- 

late  flowers  of  Willow. 

customed  to  reasoning  from 
analogy,  and  the  question  is  answered  by  explain- 
ing that  the  Birch  and  Alder  catkins  have  three 
or  four  flowers  under  each  corresponding  bract. 

The  Willow  is  very  attractive  to  bees,  which 
suck  the  nectar  secreted  by  the  glands.  Going 
from  tree  to  tree,  they  carry  the  pollen  on  their 
bodies  to  the  stigmas  of  the  pistillate  flowers 
and  thus  fertilize  them.  Although  the  Willow 
is  fertilized  by  insects,  most  of  its  near  relatives 
are  fertilized  by  the  wind. 


THE  FOREST   TREES   IN   BLOSSOM.  107 

The  fruit  of  the  Willow  is  a  one-celled  pod, 
opening  by  two  pieces  or  valves,  and  discharging 
its  very  numerous  seeds.  The  seeds  are  covered 
with  a  plume  of  long  silky  hairs  (coma),  and 
the  effect  when  the  pods  are  opening  is  very 
beautiful.  This  silky  tuft  serves  the  purpose  of 
making  the  seeds  fly  away  from  the  parent  plant, 
and  gives  them  a  better  chance  to  grow.  We 
shall  see  many  adaptations  for  scattering  seeds. 

The  different  kinds  of  Willow  are  very  diffi- 
cult to  distinguish ;  they  hybridize  easily,  and  it 
is  quite  out  of  the  question  for  a  beginner  to 
attempt  to  refer  them  to  their  species.  For  this 
reason  we  have  spoken  of  the  whole  genus  in- 
stead of  taking  a  special  example.1  It  is  enough 
that  we  have  an  example  of  an  apetalous  flower, 
with  the  flowers  in  catkins  and  one  flower  under 
each  bract.  This  will  place  it  in  our  schedule 
under  Salicacece,  the  Willow  family.  We  will 
compare  it  with  the  Poplar,  the  only  other  genus 
belonging  to  this  family. 

The  flowers  of  the  Poplar  are  also  arranged 

1  But  a  description  of  Salix  Petiolaris  will  be  found  in  the 
Appendix,  p.  312. 


108  THE   FOREST   TREES    IN   BLOSSOM. 

with  both  kinds  of  flowers  in  catkins  and  one 
under  each  bract,  but  the  Willows  have  entire 
bracts  and  nectar  glands,  while  the  Poplars  have 
cut-lobed  scales  and  no  nectar  glands,  and  are, 
as  we  should  expect  from  the  absence  of  nectar, 
wind-fertilized.  They  require,  therefore,  many 
more  stamens  than  the  Willow  (for  the  waste  of 
pollen  in  wind-fertilized  flowers  is  much  greater 
than  where  the  pollen  is  carried  by  insects),  and 
the  stigmas  are  elongated,  so  that  they  may  the 
better  .catch  the  pollen.  The  whole  Willow 
family  have  catkins  enclosed  during  the  winter 
in  scaly  buds,  but  in  the  Willow  they  are  cov- 
ered with  a  single  scale,  and  in  the  Poplar  with 
several  or  many  scales.  The  Willow  (Salix)  and 
the  Poplar  (Populus)  are  the  only  genera  be- 
longing to  this  family. 

Another  very  important  family  in  this  apeta- 
lous  group  with  the  flowers  in  catkins  is  the  Oak 
family  (Cupulifercv).  The  sixth  edition  of  the 
Manual  places  the  Birches  in  this  family  and 
divides  it  into  three  tribes,  the  Birch  tribe 
(Betidece),  the  Hazel  tribe  (Corylece),  and  the 
Oak  tribe  (Quercinece).  This  family  may  be  dis- 


THE   FOREST    TREES    IN    BLOSSOM.  109 

tinguished  from  the  Willows  by  being  monce- 
cious.  The  leaves  are  simple  in  both. 

The  first  tribe  is  represented  by  the  Birch  and 
Alder.  The  sterile  flowers  of  the  Birch  are  in 
long,  drooping  catkins,  densely  flowered  and  ses- 
sile, terminal  and  in  the  axils  of  the  upper  leaves 
of  the  preceding  season.  The  fruiting  catkins 
are  smaller,  terminal  on  short  branchlets  with 
a  distinct  peduncle,  erect  or  slightly  drooping. 
The  sterile  catkins  are  formed  in  the  previous 
season  and  remain  naked  all  winter ;  the  fertile 
are  enclosed  with  two  leaves  in  a  scaly  bud. 

Each  bract  of  the  catkins  is  shield-shaped  and 
tipped  with  brown.  Within  are  two  smaller 
bracts,  and  opposite  each  of  these  three  bracts  is 
a  scale,  bearing  two  deeply-parted  filaments. 
Each  division  of  the  filaments  bears  an  anther- 
cell,  and  there  thus  appear  to  be  twelve  one-celled 
anthers,  four  to  each  scale.  The  morphology  of 
this  group  of  flowers  is  difficult  and  quite  impos- 
sible for  a  beginner  to  make  out.  The  scales 
represent  the  remains  of  floral  envelopes,  and 
each  flower  consists  of  a  calyx  of  one  scale, 
bearing  two  deeply-parted  filaments. 


110  THE   FOREST    TREES   IN   BLOSSOM. 

The  fertile  flowers  are  naked,  and  consist  only 
of  an  ovary,  with  two  diverging  stigmas.  There 
are  two  or  three  under  each  bract.  The  fruit  is 
a  winged  nut.  The  different  species  of  Birch 
are  easily  recognized  by  their  bark. 

The  Alder  catkins  resemble  the  Birch  greatly. 
The  sterile  catkins  are  axillary,  the  fertile  clus- 
tered at  the  ends  of  the  branches.  There  are 
generally  three  flowers  beneath  each  bract,  and 
each  flower  has  a  calyx  of  four  scales  as  well  as 
several  bractlets.  The  fertile  catkins  have  a 
calyx  also,  and  this,  with  the  bractlets,  becomes 
woody  in  fruit  and  remains  on  the  shrub  in  little 
persistent  cones. 

The  last  group,  the  Hazels,  contains  the 
Hazel,  Hop-Hornbeam,  and  Hornbeam.  This 
group  has  no  calyx.  The  stamens  are  generally 
forked,  bearing  an  anther  cell  on  each  fork. 
The  fertile  flowers  are  two  under  each  bract, 
and  have  beside  one  or  two  bractlets  which  make 
an  involucre  to  the  nut. 

The  fertile  flowers  in  the  Hazel  are  in  termi- 
nal clusters.  They  have  a  number  of  bracts  at 
the  base  of  the  cluster,  and  the  flowers  are  in 


THE  FOREST   TREES   IN  BLOSSOM.  Ill 

the  axils  of  the  upper  bracts,  and  seem  to  consist 
wholly  of  the  long,  red  stigmas,  which  hang  out, 
making  a  little  red  tuft  at  the  top.  Looking  at 
the  base  of  the  stigmas  we  cannot  see  any  ovary. 
It  develops  later,  and  is  surrounded  by  an  in- 
volucre, formed  of  the  two  leafy  bracts. 

The  Hop-Hornbeam  is  a  common  tree  which 
is  very  conspicuous  in  fruit.  It  flowers  at  the 
same  time  as  the  Birch  and  Alder,  and  is  excel- 
lent for  comparison  with  them.  The  sterile  cat- 
kins resemble  those  we  have  been  studying  very 
closely,  having  several  stamens  in  the  axil  of 
each  bract.  The  fertile  flowers  are  in  short  cat- 
kins, in  terminal  leafy  buds,  a  pair  under  each 
bract.  They  are  enclosed  in  a  bractlet,  which 
becomes  a  sort  of  bladdery  bag,  and  makes  a 
cluster  very  like  that  of  the  Hop,  whence  the 
name  of  the  tree.  The  tree  is  distinguished 
readily  from  the  Hornbeam  by  the  furrowed 
bark.  The  bark  of  the  Hornbeam  is  smooth. 

The  flowers  of  the  Hornbeam  are  very  similar, 
but  the  bracts  of  the  sterile  flowers  are  deciduous 
and  the  bractlet  is  open  in  fruit,  instead  of  being 
a  closed  bag. 


112  THE   FOREST   TREES    IN   BLOSSOM. 

The  involucre  is  a  very  conspicuous  part  of 
the  fruit  in  all  this  tribe.  In  the  Hazel  it 
makes,  as  we  have  seen,  a  leafy  involucre  for  the 
nut ;  in  the  Hop-Hornbeam  it  is  a  closed  blad- 
dery bag ;  in  the  Hornbeam  it  is  open,  but  no 
less  conspicuous. 

In  the  last  tribe,  the  Oak  tribe,  we  have  three 
genera,  the  Oak,  Chestnut,  and  Beech.  We  will 
study  the  Red  Oak. 

RED  OAK  (Quercus  rubra).1 

If  we  look  at  a  flowering  branch  of  the 
Red  Oak,  we  shall  see  the  long,  drooping  stam- 
inate  catkins  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  of 
the  preceding  season,  and  lateral  on  the  bases  of 
the  new  leafy  shoots ;  we  shall  also  find  in  the 
axils  of  last  year's  leaves  below  the  clusters  of 
stamens,  small  round  heads  of  bracts,  crowned 
by  little,  hard,  dry,  three-lobed  projections. 
We  are  apt  to  mistake  these  for  the  pistillate 
flowers,  but  on  a  more  thorough  search  we  find 
the  true  fertile  flowers  in  the  axils  of  this  year's 
leaves.  They  are  tiny  blossoms  with  three  red 

1  Appendix,  p.  313. 


THE   FOREST   TREES   IN   BLOSSOM.  113 

stigmas,  surrounded  by  tightly  appressed  bracts. 
What,  then,  are  the  larger  bodies  below  ?  Our 
pistillate  flowers  are  in  the  axils  of  the  lower 
leaves  of  the  season,  these  are  in  the  axils  of  the 
lower  leaves  of  the  preceding  season.  The  pis- 
tillate flowers  have  three  stigmas,  these  have 
three  dry  lobes  at  the  top.  They  are  evidently 
last  year's  fruit.  Let  us  look  further  back  on 
the  branch.  Perhaps  we  may  find  some  acorns, 
and  these  will  also  be  in  the  axils  of  former 
leaves,  but  always  of  at  least  two  seasons  before. 
The  fruit  of  the  Oak,  therefore,  takes  two  years 
to  ripen,  and  the  bodies  we  have  been  examin- 
ing are  fruits  during  their  first  year,  before  they 
have  matured.  The  acorn  is  the  fully  developed 
fruit,  and  we  shall  find  it,  also,  crowned  with  the 
persistent  stigmas,  while  the  involucre  of  ap- 
pressed scales  has  become  the  saucer-shaped 
acorn  cup.  The  acorn  is  a  one-seeded  fruit,  the 
rest  of  the  ovules  never  maturing. 

The  staminate  flowers  of  the  Oak  are  very 
simple,  consisting  of  a  three-lobed  calyx  and 
four  to  six  sessile  stamens.  They  are  in  long, 
drooping  clusters  on  slender,  naked  peduncles, 


114  THE    FOREST    TREES    IN   BLOSSOM. 

the  bracts  falling  off  before  the  flowers  open 
(caducous). 

Some  of  the  Oaks,  the  White  Oak  and  its 
nearly  allied  species,  mature  their  acorns  in  the 
first  year,  and  these  Oaks  can  be  distinguished 
by  the  rounded  lobes  and  sinuses  of  their  leaves, 
which  are  never  bristle-pointed. 

Another  important  family  of  the  apetalous 
group,  with  the  flowers  in  catkins,  is  the  Walnut 
family  (Juglandacece).  The  trees  of  this  family 
are  monoecious,  like  those  of  the  Oak  family,  but 
the  leaves  are  pinnately  compound  instead  of 
simple,  and  have  no  stipules.  The  sterile  flow- 
ers are  in  naked  catkins,  the  fertile  solitary  or 
clustered.  The  Walnuts  (Juglans)  and  Hicko- 
ries (Caryd)  belong  to  this  family. 

AMERICAN  ELM  (Ulmus  Americana).1 

The  blossoms  of  the  Elm  are  among  the  first 
to  show  themselves,  while  the  leaves  develop 
later  than  in  most  trees.  The  blossoms  are  apt 
to  be  so  abundant  that  it  surprises  us  to  see  the 

1  Appendix,  p.  3H, 


THE   FOKEST   TREES   IN   BLOSSOM.  115 

leaves  budding  so  long  after  we  have  observed 
the  tree  dressed  in  a  spring  suit. 

The  flowers  are  in  thick  clusters  from  axil- 
lary buds  in  the  axils  of  the  lower  leaves  of  the 
preceding  year  (Part  I,  Fig.  16).  They  are 
on  slender  pedicels,  which  are  short  when  the 
flower  first  opens,  and  gradually  become  long 
and  drooping.  The  flowers  are  perfect,  but  the 
pistil  does  not  develop  into  fruit  in  all  of  the 
flowers. 

The  calyx  is  a  little  oblique  cup,  often  deli- 
cately tinted  with  red.  There  is  no  corolla,  and 
we  shall,  therefore,  look  for  the  tree  in  the  apeta- 
lous  division.  The  fruit  is  a  samara,  winged  all 
around,  two-celled,  or  one-celled  by  the  non-de- 
velopment of  one  of  the  cells,  and  forming  a 
one-seeded  fruit. 

The  Elm  tribe  is  the  only  one  in  its  family 
(Urticacece)  where  the  flowers  are  perfect,  all 
the  others  being  monoecious  or  dioecious. 

We  will  study  a  few  trees  with  complete 
flowers,  before  passing  to  the  consideration  of 
the  Gymnosperms,  or  naked-seeded  plants,  and 
first  we  will  glance  at  the  Maples. 


116  THE   FOREST   TREES   IN   BLOSSOM. 

RED  MAPLE  (Acer  rubrum). 

The  Red  Maple  is  one  of  the  first  of  our  trees 
to  blossom,  and  by  the  time  the  Birches  and 
Hazels  are  in  full  flower  we  can  find  only  the 
forming  fruit.  The  flowers  are  small,  with  a 
five-parted,  reflexed  calyx  and  five  linear  petals, 
which  are  folded  towards  the  centre  of  the 
flower.  The  stamens  vary  in  number.  The 
ovary  is  two-celled  with  a  wing  from  the  back 
of  each  cell,  which  greatly  enlarges  in  fruit  and 
converts  the  fruit  into  a  double  samara  or  pair 
of  keys. 

The  petals  and  stamens  are  inserted  on  an 
hypogynous  disk.  The  fruit  does  not  develop 
in  all  the  flowers  and  the  anthers  do  not  dis- 
charge their  pollen  in  the  fertile  flowers,  so 
that  the  sexes  are  really  separate.  The  tree  is 
monoecious  or  dioecious.  We  find  many  trees 
without  fruit,  while  others  are  laden  with  it, 
and  it  seems  to  me  it  is  becoming  entirely 
dioecious. 

The  Sugar  Maple  is  very  conspicuous  in  spring 
from  its  long,  drooping  filaments,  which  give 


THE   FOREST   TREES   IN   BLOSSOM.  117 

the  tree  a  beautiful  appearance,  as  if  covered  by 
a  soft  mist. 

The  flower  of  the  White  Maple  (A.  dasycar- 
pum)  is  without  a  corolla.  We  see  from  such 
cases  that  our  distinction  between  the  polypeta- 
lous  and  apetalous  divisions  is  a  very  artificial 
one.  For  this  reason  the  modern  German  authors 
place  the  apetalous  families  among  the  polypeta- 
lous  ones.  We  cannot  fail  to  see,  as  we  study 
more  of  nature,  that  all  such  classification  is 
purely  a  matter  of  convenience. 

The  Norway  Maple  (A .  platanoides) l  is  now  a 
common  tree  in  cultivation,  and  will  supply  a 
very  good  subject  for  study  and  comparison  with 
our  native  Maples.  The  flowers  are  larger  and 
therefore  easier  for  beginners,  and  it  flowers 
later.  If  the  flowering  time  of  the  other  Maples 
has  passed,  this  will  be  available. 

The  tree  is  spreading,  with  large,  smooth, 
bright  green,  not  very  deeply  incised  leaves 
(Fig.  15,  2).  It  flowers  in  May. 

The  flowers  grow  in  terminal  clusters.  The 
primary  branching  is  indeterminate,  while  the 

1  Appendix,  p.  316. 


118  THE   FOREST    TREES    IN    BLOSSOM. 

secondary  branches  have  the  flowers  in  cymes. 
They  begin  to  appear  before  the  leaves  (Fig. 
15,  i),  and  the  cluster  continues  to  enlarge  and 
develop  more  blossoms  until  the  leaves  are  well 
grown. 

The  flowers  are  about  half  an  inch  wide.  The 
calyx  is  gamosepalous,  adnate  to  a  fleshy  disk 
around  the  ovary,  on  which  the  five  petals  and 
the  eight  stamens  are  inserted  (Fig.  15,  3).  The 
disk  secretes  nectar.  There  are  different  forms 
of  flowers  on  the  same  tree  with  two  lengths  of 
stamens.  The  flowers  with  long  stamens  (Fig. 
15,  3)  have  pistils  which  never  mature,  and  the 
short  stamens  (Fig.  15,  4,  5,  e)  never  open  to  dis- 
charge their  pollen,  so  that  the  flowers  are  really 
completely  separated  as  to  the  sexes,  and  are 
dependent  on  the  visits  of  insects  or  the  wind 
for  their  fertilization,  as  is  also  the  case  with  all 
our  other  species  of  Maple.  The  long,  pendu- 
lous stamens  of  the  Sugar  Maple  impress  us 
with  the  idea  that  the  pollen  is  intended  to  be 
carried  by  the  wind.  I  do  not  know  whether 
this  is  the  case. 

The  ovary  is  two-lobed,  two-celled,  winged  on 


FIG    15. -Norway  Maple.     1.  Flowering  branch.     2.  Leaf.     3.  Section  of  sterile 
flower.     4,  5,  6.   Fertile  flower  in  successive   stages.      7.  F; 


8.  Diagram. 


THE   FOREST   TREES    IN   BLOSSOM.  119 

the  back  of  each  cell,  and  from  this  wing  of  the 
ovary  grows  the  wing  of  the  fruit  (Fig.  15,  6,  s). 
The  fruit  is  a  double  samara,  and  the  halves  sep- 
arate when  the  fruit  is  ripe  (Fig.  15,  7). 

The  Soapberry  family  (Sapindacece),  to  which 
the  Maples  belong,  we  shall  find  on  our  schedule 
between  the  hypogynous  and  perigynous  divi- 
sions, for  the  stamens  and  petals  are  inserted 
either  under  or  around  the  ovary.  The  family 
contains  only  shrubs  and  trees,  with  the  stamens 
and  petals  inserted  on  a  fleshy  disk  either  be- 
neath or  around  the  ovary.  The  seed  is  exal- 
buminous.  This  family  contains  also  a  tree 
common  in  cultivation  which  is  an  extremely 
interesting  study,  the  Horsechestnut. 

HORSECHESTNUT  (^Esculus  ffippocastanum).1 

We  have  already  made  a  thorough  study  of 
the  growtli  of  this  tree.2  The  flowers  are  as 
interesting  as  the  buds,  and  will  repay  a  careful 
examination. 

The  flower-clusters  are  terminal.  Each  clus- 
ter is  a  thyrsus;  that  is,  a  dense  compound 

1  Appendix,  p.  317.  2  Outlines,  Part  I,  pp.  54-66. 


120  THE   FOREST   TREES   IN   BLOSSOM. 

ckister,  in  which  the  primary  branching  is  inde- 
terminate, while  the  inflorescence  of  each  branch 
is  determinate,  the  terminal  flowers  first  develop- 
ing. We  can  easily  see  that  the  lower  branches 
are  the  first  to  develop,  and  that  therefore  the 
whole  cluster  is  indeterminate,  but  the  branches 
appear  to  be  also  racemose,  as  the  youngest  flow- 
ers are  at  the  end  of  each  branch.  This  cannot 
really  be  the  case,  however,  for  the  flowers  are  all 
on  the  same  side  of  the  branch  (Fig.  16,  i).  The 
lowest  flower  opened  first  and  wTas  originally  the 
terminal  flower;  then  a  lateral  branch,  also  ter- 
minated by  a  flower,  arose  from  its  pedicel,  and 
this  process  went  on,  till  there  were  perhaps 
eight  flowers  in  the  cluster.  The  process  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  growth  of  the  leafy  branch 
of  the  tree,  where  the  stronger  axillary  bud 
threw  its  fellow  to  one  side,  making  it  appear 
lateral  instead  of  terminal. 

There  are  many  flowers  on  a  single  thyrsus. 
The  primary  branches  average  about  twenty- 
five  on  my  tree,  with  an  average  of  eight  flowers 
on  a  branch.  There  are  more  flowers  on  the 
lower  branches,  for  the  reason,  I  suppose,  that 


Fi».  16.— Horsecbestnut.  1.  Flower-cluster.  2,  3.  Staminate  flower.  4.  Sta- 
men. 5.  Rudimentary  pistil  and  four  stamens  of  staminate  flower. 
6.  Pistillate  flower.  7.  Cross  section  of  ovary.  8.  Diagram. 


THE   FOREST   TREES   IN   BLOSSOM.  121 

they  appear  sooner  and  have  time  to  develop 
more  lateral  branches.  The  first  flowers  to  de- 
velop are  all  staminate,  having  a  rudimentary 
pistil  only  (Fig.  16,  3,  5).  Later,  other  flowers 
with  perfect  pistils,  the  style  protruding  from  the 
unopened  bud  (proterogynous),  appear  (Fig.  16,  6) 
and  still  later  ones  are  again  generally  staininate. 
The  pistillate  flowers  have  perfect  stamens, 
which  discharge.  Muller  mentions  a  case,  like 
the  one  that  we  discovered  in  the  Norway  Maple, 
of  the  stamens  in  the  fertile  flower  never  dis- 
charging. I  have  never  seen  this  happen. 

The  calyx  of  all  the  flowers  is  gamosepalous 
and  five-lobed,  adnate  to  an  hypogynous  disk 
which  secretes  nectar.  The  corolla  is  polypeta- 
lous,  of  four  or  five  (Fig.  16,  2)  petals.  When 
there  are  but  four  petals  the  lower  one  is  ab- 
sent. The  petals  have  claws  and  two  projec- 
tions where  the  blade  joins  the  claw.  These 
projections  are  pressed  tightly  against  the  sta- 
mens, and  perhaps  serve  to  protect  the  nectar 
from  the  rain  and  to  close  the  path  to  creeping 
insects.  The  color  of  the  petals  is  white  with 
yellow  nectar-guides,  which  are  chiefly  on  the 


122  THE   FOREST   TREES   IN   BLOSSOM. 

two  upper  petals  and  change  gradually  to  a 
beautiful  crimson.  The  color  of  the  whole  clus- 
ter is  therefore  prettily  variegated,  the  older 
flowers  having  crimson,  the  younger  yellow 
spots,  with  varying  shades  of  color  according  to 
the  age  of  each  flower.  This  change  of  color 
seems  to  answer  the  purpose  of  informing  the 
bees  which  flowers  are  old  and  rifled  of  their 
nectar.  I  have  never  seen  a  bee  creep  into  a 
crimson-spotted  flower.1 

The  entrance  to  the  nectar  is  at  the  base  of 
the  two  upper  petals,  the  path  below  being  cut 
off  by  the  projections  on  the  petals  and  the  posi- 
tion of  the  stamens. 

The  stamens  are  usually  seven,  distinct,  at 
first  declined.  The  stamens  rise  one  by  one 
when  mature  (Fig.  16,  s),  as  in  Tropaeolum,  and 
like  that  also  in  a  definite  order.  If  we  are 
looking  at  the  right  time  we  can  see  the  anther 
of  a  stamen  which  has  just  risen  split  suddenly 
and  become  covered  with  pollen.  When  this 
takes  place,  the  anther  is  directly  in  the  path  to 
the  nectar.1 

1  Reader  in  Botany.     VIII.     The  Horsechestnut. 


THE   FOREST   TREES    IN    BLOSSOM.  123 

It  is  very  clear  that  a  bee  entering  the  flower 
would  brush  against  the  stamens  and  become 
dusted  with  pollen,  and  would  leave  this  pollen 
on  the  style  of  the  next  pistillate  flower  visited, 
for  the  style  curves  upward  and  stands  in 
exactly  the  same  relation  to  the  path  to  the  nec- 
tar as  do  the  stamens  while  discharging.  The 
honey-bees  have  a  wicked  way  of  crawling  about 
under  the  flowers  and  stealing  the  nectar  from 
beneath,  but  the  bumble-bees  appear  to  visit  the 
flower  always  in  the  proper  way. 

The  pistil  of  Horsechestnut  has  three  united 
carpels.  The  ovary  is  three-celled,  with  an 
ovule  in  each  cell.  It  is  covered  with  glandular 
hairs  (Fig.  16,  7),  which  become  the  prickly  bris- 
tles of  the  bur.  Generally  only  one  of  the 
ovules  develops  into  the  beautiful  seed  with  its 
shining  brown  coat,  which  is  so  dear  to  the  chil- 
dren, but  sometimes  we  find  two,  and  occasion- 
ally three,  packed  away  in  the  bur,  side  by 
side. 

The  embryo  in  the  seed  is  large  and  fills  the 
whole  shell.  The  caulicle  has  a  nice  little 
pocket  of  its  own  in  the  hard  seed-coat. 


124  THE   FOREST    TREES    IN   BLOSSOM. 

The  gradual  development  of  the  fruit  and  the 
stiffening  of  the  soft  hairs  into  prickles  is  a  very 
interesting  study.  The  prickly  bur  is  a  protec- 
tion for  the  nuts,  which,  although  so  bitter,  are 
eaten  by  some  animals. 

A  very  interesting  adaptation  in  the  Horse- 
chestnut  is  the  presence  in  the  buds  containing 
flower-clusters  of  well-developed  axillary  buds  in 
the  axils  of  the  upper  leaves.  These  grow  at 
once,  and  while  the  flower-cluster  is  still  young 
become  rapidly  growing  branches,  while  the 
leafy  branches,  without  flower-clusters,  have 
merely  latent  buds  in  the  axils.  The  intention 
to  carry  on  the  branch  when  the  flower-cluster 
drops  off  is  evident,  but  how  does  the  branch 
know  what  is  coming  ?  Is  it  because  the  devel- 
opment of  the  flower  requires  less  nourishment  ? 

GYMNOSPERMS. 

Finally,  we  have  the  Gymriosperms,  or  naked- 
seeded  plants,  very  many  of  which  are  in  flower 
in  early  spring.  The  study  of  these  flowers  is 
too  difficult  for  the  ordinary  beginner  to  pursue 
very  successfully,  but  it  may  be  profitable  to 


THE   FOREST    TREES    IN   BLOSSOM.  125 

point  out  certain  interesting  peculiarities  of  the 
Coniferae. 

The  Larch  (Larix)  is  very  beautiful  in  May, 
with  its  delicate  new  bundles  of  soft  needles,  the 
only  deciduous  tree  among  all  our  native  Coni- 
ferse.  The  fertile  flowers  are  of  a  clear  crimson 
color,  and  in  the  European  Larch  are  very 
large  and  handsome. 

The  fertile  and  sterile  flowers  are  found  on  the 
same  tree.  The  sterile  flowers  consist  of  little 
brown  clusters  of  stamens.  They  are  lateral  on 
the  branches,  and  replace  the  leaf-buds,  so  that 
there  is  a  space  without  leaves  in  each  year's 
growth,  exactly  as  we  saw  in  the  Elm.1  They 
are  surrounded  with  scales  which  answer  to  the 
scales  of  a  leaf-bud.  The  accepted  view  of  them 
is  that  the  whole  cluster  is  a  single  flower  with 
the  stamens  arranged  spirally  on  the  axis.  The 
anther  cells  open  across  the  anther. 

The  fertile  flowers  are  at  the  ends  of  short 
branches,  generally  with  leaves  in  the  bud  also. 
They  are  almost  globular,  of  a  brilliant  red 
color,  the  scales  imbricated  in  a  dense  cone. 

1  Outlines,  Part  I,  p.  81. 


126  THE    FOREST    TREES    IN   BLOSSOM. 

These  scales  are  open  carpels,  bearing  two 
ovules  on  the  base  of  each  scale.  The  whole  is 
regarded  as  a  single  flower  by  some  botanists, 
and  by  others  as  a  catkin  of  flowers,  each  scale 
representing  a  single  flower.  The  former  view 
is  the  one  adopted  by  Goebel  in  the  new  edition 
of  Sach's  text-book.1 

In  early  spring  we  often  see  the  Red  Cedar 
or  Savin  (Juniperus  Virginiand)  covered  with  a 
golden  light. 

"  Red  cedars  blossom  too,  though  few  folks  know  it, 
And  look  all  dipt  in  sunshine  like  a  poet.77 

If  we  examine  them  we  shall  find  the  tips  of 
the  branches  covered  with  tiny  tassels  of  sta- 
mens, so  full  of  pollen  that  when  we  shake  the 
tree  a  yellow  cloud  is  borne  away  by  the  wind. 
The  scale  of  each  group,  which  we  may  regard 
as  a  shield-shaped  filament,  bears  from  three  to 
six  anther  cells,  attached  to  its  lower  edge. 

1  "  The  whole  flower  is  long  and  conical  and  resembles  a  cat- 
kin in  outward  appearance,  and  is,  in  fact,  termed  a  catkin  in  the 
superficial  language  of  many  systematic  botanists,  though  the 
amentum  of  Dicotyledons  is  an  inflorescence  while  the  apparent 
catkin  of  the  Coniferae  is  a  single  flower."  —  Goebel's  Outlines, 
p.  323. 


THE   FOREST   TREES    IN   BLOSSOM.  127 

On  another  tree  we  shall  find  the  fertile 
flowers,  which  are  so  small  and  so  much  like  the 
leaves  that  a  long  search  may  be  necessary. 
They  are  very  tiny  bluish  rosettes  of  scales, 
with  one  or  two  bottle-shaped  ovules  at  the  base 
of  each  scale.  The  scales  swell  in  fruit,  become 
fleshy,  and  unite  about  each  ovule  and  with  each 
other,  forming  a  blue  berry  with  small  projections 
which  show  the  former  tips  of  the  scales. 

The  leaves  of  the  Savin  are  of  two  sorts.  One 
kind  is  very  closely  appressed,  imbricated,  short, 
and  scale-like ;  the  other  sort  is  longer,  larger, 
and  looser.  These  leaves  are  on  different 
branches. 

The  Yew  (Taxus  Canadensis)  blossoms  some- 
what later.  The  connective  is  lobed,  and  makes 
a  sort  of  little  cup  or  inverted  umbrella  over 
each  group  of  anther  cells.  The  fertile  flowers, 
almost  always  on  another  plant,  have  a  solitary 
ovule,  surrounded  with  a  receptacular  disk,  which 
is  cup-shaped  and  becomes  red  and  pulpy,  sur- 
rounding the  seed  in  the  fruit. 

The  Arbor  Vitse  (Thuja  occidentalis)  has  con- 
spicuous little  cones  at  the  ends  of  its  branches. 


128  THE    FOREST    TREES    IN    BLOSSOM. 

The  flowers  of  the  season  are  globular,  with 
pointed,  fleshy  scales,  bearing  two  erect,  bottle- 
shaped  ovules  at  the  base  of  each  scale.  These 
scales  spread  when  they  are  dry  and  remain  as 
the  persistent  cones. 

The  staminate  flowers  resemble  those  of  the 
Red  Cedar,  and  have  scale-like  connectives 
bearing  four  anther  cells. 

The  leaves  of  the  Arbor  Yitae  are  of  two 
sorts,  on  different  branches,  one  short,  blunt, 
and  joined  to  the  branch,  the  other  loose  and 
awl-shaped. 

Later  in  the  season,  early  in  June,  blossom 
the  Pines.  We  will  examine  in  particular  the 
Pitch  Pine  (Pinus  rigida).1 

This  is  a  tree  with  a  very  rough  bark  and  a 
wild,  scrubby  appearance.  The  wood  is  hard 
and  very  resinous. 

The  leaves  are  of  two  sorts.  The  primary 
leaves  are  scale-like,  thin,  brown,  and  closely  ap- 
pressed  to  the  branch.  In  their  axils  are  pro- 
duced the  clusters  of  needle-shaped  leaves  which 
make  the  foliage  of  the  tree  (Fig.  17).  These 

1  Appendix,  p.  319. 


THE   FOREST    TREES    IN   BLOSSOM.  129 

leaves  are  evergreen,  long  and  narrow,  rounded 
without,  angled  within,  in  bundles  or  fascicles, 
which  in  this  species  consist  of  three  needles,  in 
the  White  Pine  five,  and  in  the  Red  Pine  two. 
They  are  surrounded  at  the  base  with  thin  scales. 

Early  in  spring  the  new  shoots  appear,  and 
around  the  base  of  these  is  a  cluster  of  staminate 
flowers  (Fig.  17,  i),  which  appear  long  before  the 
fertile  flowers  can  be  seen,  but  do  not  mature 
till  they  are  ready  to  receive  the  pollen. 

The  staminate  flowers  consist  of  scale-like 
filaments,  spirally  arranged  on  the  axis.  To 
the  under  side  of  each  scale  the  two  anther  cells 
are  attached  (Fig.  17,  2,  3). 

The  fertile  flowers  are  lateral  on  the  shoots  of 
the  season,  sometimes  solitary  on  the  shoot, 
sometimes  with  two  or  more  in  a  cluster  (Fig. 
17, *). 

They  consist  of  open  scales,  each  thickened 
at  the  apex,  with  a  sharp,  recurved  point,  be- 
coming a  prickle  in  the  cone.  The  two  ovules 
are  sunk  in  the  base  of  the  scale  (Fig.  17,5,6,8). 

Some  botanists  regard  this  cone  as  a  catkin 
of  separate  flowers ;  others  (the  view  adopted 


130  THE   FOREST   TREES   IN   BLOSSOM. 

here)  look  upon  it  as  a  single  flower.1  Each 
ovule-bearing  scale  is  apparently  in  the  axil  of  a 
bract,  so  that  the  cluster  would  seem  to  be  a 
catkin.  But  it  does  not  seem  exactly  natural 
to  regard  the  staminate  "  catkins "  as  single 
flowers,  and  the  pistillate  cones  as  a  cluster  of 
flowers.  Goebel  regards  the  small  bract  as  the 
true  carpel,  and  the  large,  ovule-bearing  scale  as 
a  placenta,  which  has  outstripped  in  its  growth 
the  carpel  that  bore  it. 

One  noticeable  thing  about  all  these  trees  is 
their  adaptation  for  wind-fertilization.  The 
pollen  is  extremely  light,  fine,  and  abundant,  so 
abundant  in  many  cases  that  the  wind  or  a 

1  The  observation  of  very  young  cones  of  Abies  pectinata 
shows  that  the  seminiferous  scale  arises  as  a  protuberance  on 
the  base  of  the  so-called  bract-scale  (cone-scale)  and  therefore 
is  not  axillary.  While  the  latter  subsequently  grows  very  little 
or  not  at  all  larger,  this  outgrowth  from  it  increases  greatly  in 
size  and  produces  on  its  upper  surface  the  two  ovules,  which 
adhere  to  it  by  one  side  and  turn  their  micropyles  to  the  axis  of 
the  cone;  the  seminiferous  scale  of  these  genera  must  therefore 
be  regarded  as  a  placenta  of  large  dimensions,  growing  out  of  a 
carpellary  leaf,  the  latter  being  naturally  small  or  stunted  in  its 
growth.  The  whole  cone  is  therefore  a  single  flower  with  nu- 
merous small,  open  carpels,  usually  termed  bract-scales,  which 
are  far  outstripped  in  growth  by  their  seed-bearing  placentas, 
the  seminiferous  scales.  —  Goebel's  Outlines,  p.  328. 


FIG.  17.  — Pitch  Pine.  1.  Branch  with  staminate  flowers.  2.  Single  staminate 
scale.  3.  Same,  the  pollen-sacs  dehisced.  4.  Shoot,  with  fertile 
flowers.  5.  Fertile  scale,  seen  from  the  side.  6.  Same  in  front. 
7.  Cone.  8.  Single  scale,  with  fruit. 


A§%^ 

OF  THE     "        \ 

UNIVERSITY  } 

OF 


THE   FOREST   TREES    IN   BLOSSOM.  131 

slight  shaking  of  a  tree  bears  away  clouds  of 
yellow  dust  which  looks  like  sulphur. 

Nearly  all  of  them  have  some  receptacle  into 
which  the  pollen  may  fall  until  a  good  gust 
comes  to  bear  it  well  out  into  the  world,  instead 
of  being  dissipated  by  falling  at  once  on  the 
ground.  This  receptacle  is  generally  formed 
from  the  upper  side  of  the  scale-like  filament, 
which  is  immediately  under  another  anther,  and 
makes  a  sort  of  cup  to  hold  the  pollen.  This 
receptacle  is  very  striking  in  the  Yew. 

All  these  plants  belong  to  the  Pine  family 
(Coniferce),  the  only  family  of  the  Gymnosperms 
represented  in  our  native  plants.  The  Pine 
family  is  composed  of  trees  and  shrubs,  with,  in 
most  cases,  evergreen,  needle-shaped  leaves.  The 
flowers  have  no  floral  envelopes  and  naked 
seeds,  and  the  sexes  are  separated. 

We  must  not  forget  that  the  Gymnosperms 
occupy  an  intermediate  position  between  the 
Flowering  Plants  (Phanerogams)  and  the  Flower- 
less  Plants  (Cryptogams),  and  that  it  is  possible 
to  regard  them  from  another  point  of  view  from 
the  one  we  have  just  set  forth. 


132  THE   FOREST   TREES   IN   BLOSSOM. 

There  is  a  difference  in  terminology  between 
these  two  great  divisions  of  plants,  and  we  may 
treat  the  G-ymnosperms  from  the  crypt  ogam  ic 
standpoint,  if  we  wish.  But  I  fear  we  shall 
have  to  establish  a  new  race  of  young  pupils, 
before  macrosporangia  and  microsporangia,  mi- 
crospores,  and  sporophylls  will  be  as  intelligible 
as  ovules,  anthers,  pollen-grains,  and  stamens. 
It  is  desirable,  however,  to  call  the  attention  of 
the  pupils  to  the  fact  that  the  plants  we  have 
been  discussing  may  be  described  and  studied 
from  two  standpoints,  from  above  and  from 
below. 


VII. 

BLOSSOMING  FRUIT-TREES  AND  THEIR 
ALLIES. 

THERE  is  no  more  attractive  study  than  the 
blossoms  of  the  fruit-trees.  If  it  is  now  the  end 
of  April  the  Cherry  trees  are  probably  white 
with  blossoms.  Let  us  bring  some  of  the  flow- 
ers into  the  class  and  study  them. 

CHERRY  (Prunus  Cerasus}.1 

The  flowers  are  from  axillary  buds,  in  the 
axils  of  the  leaves  of  the  preceding  season. 
There  are  only  one,  two,  or  three  flowers  in  each 
bud,  but  the  buds  are  very  close  together  and 
the  flowers  are  often  in  large  clusters,  with 
the  young  leaves  in  the  centre  (Fig.  18,  i). 

The  flower  is  regular  and  complete.  The 
calyx  is  gamosepalous  and  free.  On  the  throat 

1  Appendix,  p.  322. 

133 


134  BLOSSOMING  FRUIT-TKEES 

of  the  calyx  are  inserted  the  five  petals  of  the 
corolla  and  the  many  distinct  stamens.  They 
are  not  inserted  beneath  the  ovary,  but  around 
it,  and  are  therefore  perigynous  (Fig.  18,  2). 
The  ovary  is  superior,  of  one  carpel,  and  con- 
tains two  ovules  (Fig.  18,  4). 

APPLE  (Pyrus  Mains).1 

The  Apple  blooms  later  than  the  Cherry,  but 
the  blossoms  can  be  very  easily  forced  by  bring- 
ing branches  into  the  house.  The  Pear  (Pyrus 
communis)  will  answer  equally  well  for  compari- 
son with  the  Cherry,  and  blossoms  somewhat 
earlier  than  the  Apple.  Another  flower  that 
may  be  substituted  for  the  Apple  is  the  Cydonia 
Japonica,  better  known  as  Pyrus  Japonica,  or 
Japan  Quince,  which  blooms  at  the  same  time 
as  the  Cherry. 

The  Apple  blossom  is. larger  than  that  of  the 
Cherry,  and  more  showy,  the  corolla  being  beau- 
tifully tinged  with  pink. 

The  stamens  are  like  those  of  the  Cherry,  and 
are  inserted  with  the  petals  on  the  throat  of  the 

1  Appendix,  p.  320. 


FIG.  18. —Cherry.  1.  Flower-cluster.  2.  Section  of  flower.  3.  Fruit.  4.  Dia- 
gram. 5.  Section  of  Apple  Blossom.  6.  Cross  section  of  an 
Apple. 


136  BLOSSOMING   FKUIT-TREES 

fication  than,  these  members  of  the  Rose  family 
afford.  A  plan,  which  has  proved  successful,  is 
for  the  pupil  to  make  descriptions  in  parallel 
columns  of  representatives  of  several  important 
tribes  of  the  Rose  family,  such  as  the  Cherry, 
representing  the  Prunece  (the  Almond  tribe), 
the  Strawberry,  representing  the  PotentUlece, 
and  the  Apple  or  Pear  as  types  of  the  Pomece. 
If  the  Rose  and  Spiraea  are  also  added,  we  shall 
have  examples  of  five  of  the  seven  tribes  to  be 
found  in  the  sixth  edition  of  the  Manual.  In 
earlier  editions,  we  shall  find  that  the  Rose 
family  is  divided  into  three  divisions,  called  the 
Almond,  the  Rose,  and  the  Pear  sub-orders,  and 
that  the  three  blossoms  just  described  represent 
these  three  divisions.  In  the  Appendix  will  be 
found  a  schedule,  describing  the  Cherry,  Straw- 
berry, and  Apple  in  parallel  columns.1 

It  is  usually  possible,  by  taking  the  latest 
specimens  of  the  Cherry  and  the  first  blossoms  of 
the  Strawberry  and  Apple,  to  have  all  in  bloom 
for  the  same  lesson.  By  a  little  search  in  a 
greenhouse,  we  can  find  specimens  of  the  Rose 

1  Appendix,  p.  367. 


FIG.  19.  — Strawberry.      1.  Whole  plant.     2.   Section  of  flower.      3.   Carpel. 
4.  Section  of  head  of  carpels  and  calyx.     5.  Fruit.    6.  Diagram. 


OF  THE 

K    UNIVERSITY 

*      OF 

sfilL'FORNlbs 


AND   THEIR    ALLIES.  137 

that  have  not  lost  all  their  essential  organs.  The 
Bon  Silene  rose  is  one  of  the  best.  In  many  of 
our  gardens  there  are  early  blossoming  Spiraeas. 

We  might  multiply  examples  of  easily  obtain- 
able members  of  the  Rose  family.  The  Peach 
and  Plum,  with  the  various  Wild  Cherries,  belong 
to  the  genus  Prunus,  the  Potentilla  and  Avens 
(Gfeum)  belong  to  the  Potentillece*  and  the  Shad- 
bush  (Amelanchier)  and  Hawthorn  have  a  com- 
pound ovary  consolidated  into  a  single  body  with 
the  calyx,  and  belong  to  the  Pomece.  The 
Blackberries  and  Raspberries,  belonging  to  the 
tribe  Ru~bece,  begin  to  blossom  in  May,  but  the 
members  of  the  Poterium  tribe  do  not  arrive  till 
the  middle  of  summer. 

Let  us  now  look  more  in  detail  into  these 
various  tribes  of  the  Rose  family. 

The  first  group,  Prunece,  needs,  perhaps,  no 
more  explanation.  The  ovary  of  the  Cherry  is 
simple ;  that  is,  it  consists  of  only  one  carpel. 
We  can  see  by  the  furrow  on  one  side  of  a  cherry 
where  the  margins  of  the  carpellary  leaf  meet 
(Fig.  18,  3).  The  Double  Cherry  has  apparently 
two  carpels,  which  have  reverted  to  green  leaves. 


138  BLOSSOMING   FRUIT-TREES 

This  is  an  excellent  illustration  of  the  fact  that 
the  carpels  are  modified  leaves,  and  should  not  be 
passed  over  by  the  teacher.  The  explanation  of 
the  two  carpels  in  the  Double  Cherry  has  been 
given  that  the  single  carpel  has  split  into  two 
parts.  This  does  not  commend  itself  to  the 
mind,  because  each  carpel  has  a  midrib  of  its 
own  and  is  pinnately  veined.  It  would  seem 
more  probable  that  while  in  the  Double  Cherry 
two  carpels  have  been  developed,  in  the  single 
flower  only  one  is  present. 

There  is  an  early  blossoming  Spiraea  (S. 
thunbergii),  which  is  very  commonly  planted  here. 
The  corolla  and  stamens  are  similar  to  those  of 
the  other  flowers  we  have  studied.  The  ovary  is 
free,  as  in  the  Cherry,  but  the  carpels  are  sepa- 
rate and  contain  several  or  many  seeds.  This 
kind  of  ovary  is  a  follicle,  and  distinguishes  the 
tribe  Spirece  among  the  other  tribes  of  the  Rose 
family. 

We  have  no  example  of  the  third  tribe, 
Ru~bece,  as  yet  in  bloom,  for  the  Blackberry  and 
Raspberry  cannot  be  found  till  the  middle  of 
May.  In  this  tribe  there  are  many  carpels. 


AND    THEIR   ALLIES.  139 

containing  each  two  ovules.  The  carpels  are 
heaped  on  a  conical  receptacle,  and  become  fleshy 
in  fruit. 

We  have  already  studied  the  Strawberry, 
representing  the  Potentilla  tribe.  The  carpels 
are  also  heaped  on  an  enlarged  receptacle,  but 
they  are  akenes  and  remain  dry  in  fruit. 

We  have  no  representative  of  the  sixth  tribe, 
the  Poterium  tribe,  until  July. 

In  the  Rose  tribe  (Rosece)  the  top  of  the 
stem  has  grown  up  into  a  hollow,  urn-shaped 
receptacle,  bearing  the  akenes  on  its  sides  (Fig. 
20).  The  petals  and  stamens  are  inserted  on 
the  throat  of  this  tube,  and  the  styles  protrude 
from  the  centre.  The  receptacle  becomes  fleshy 
and  bright-colored  in  fruit. 

Lastly,  the  Pear  tribe  (Pomece),  seems,  at  first 
sight,  to  be  very  different  from  the  others,  in 
that  it  has  a  five-celled  ovary,  but  this  is  really 
composed  of  five  separate,  simple  carpels  consoli- 
dated with  the  receptacle  and  the  calyx  into  a 
single  body. 

All  the  flowers  we  have  examined  in  this 
chapter  are  regular  and  complete ;  the  stamens 


140  BLOSSOMING  FRUIT-TREES 

are  numerous,  distinct,  and  on  the  calyx,  and 
the  carpels  are  simple,  being  combined  in  one 
tribe  only.  The  leaves  are  alternate,  with 
stipules.  These  characters  belong  to  the  whole 
family.  The  abundance  of  examples  of  the 
Rose  family  at  the  same  season  gives  an  unusual 
opportunity  for  exercise  in  classification. 

Many  of  the  members  of  the  Rose  family,  as, 
for  instance,  the  Potentilla,  bear  a  strong  like- 
ness to  the  Ranunculacece,  in  their  many  sta- 
mens, innate  anthers,  and  many  separate  carpels 
in  a  head ;  but  the  families  may  always  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the  corolla  and  stamens  of  the 
Crowfoot  family  being  inserted  beneath  the 
ovary  (hypogynous),  while  in  the  Rose  family 
the  corolla  and  stamens  are  on  the  throat  of  the 
calyx  (perigynous). 

The  Saxifrage  family  is  very  near  to  the  Rose 
family.  We  shall  find  on  the  schedule  that  the 
families  are  distinguished  by  the  Rose  having 
alternate  leaves  with  stipules,  and  the  Saxifrage 
opposite,  as  well  as  alternate  leaves,  and  no 
stipules.  This  distinction,  like  most  of  our 
characters,  is  liable  to  exceptions. 


AND  THEIR  ALLIES.  141 

THE  RECEPTACLE. 

An  excellent  lesson  on  the  receptacle  could  be 
given  in  reviewing  these  flowers,  or  brought  out 
by  dwelling  especially  on  this  part  of  the  blossom 
in  each  description. 

The  Cherry  and  Spiraea  have  flat  receptacles. 
The  Rose  looks,  at  first  sight,  as  if  it  had  a  calyx 
united  with  the  ovaries,  exactly 
as  we  find  it  in  the  Apple.  But, 
making  a  vertical  section  of  a 
Rose-hip  (Fig.  20),  we  find  that 
the  ovaries  are  set  on  the  sides 
of  the  tube,  and  that  the  inside 
of  this  tube,  at  least,  must  there- 
fore be  a  part  of  the  receptacle. 
The  receptacle,  as  we  know,  is 
the  part  of  the  stem  that  holds  the  organs  of 
the  flower,  and  in  the  Rose  it  has  grown  up  into 
a  hollow  disk,  bearing  the  carpels  on  the  inside. 

Compare  this  hollow  receptacle  with  that  of 
the  Raspberry  or  Blackberry.  We  can  remem- 
ber, if  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  specimens  at  the 
moment,  how  the  red  or  black  grains  in  these 


142  BLOSSOMING    FRUIT-TREES 

fruits  are  heaped  on  the  receptacle,  from  which  the 
fruit  of  the  Raspberry  separates  itself  when  ripe, 
while  the  blackberry  is  eaten,  receptacle  and  all. 

Compare  the  strawberry  with  these  fruits,  and 
let  the  scholars  discover  for  themselves,  if  possi- 
ble, what  it  is  that  ripens.  The  fruit  now  comes 
so  early  to  our  markets  that  specimens  can  gen- 
erally be  obtained.  The  carpels  are  heaped  on 
a  prolonged  receptacle,  as  in  the  raspberry,  but 
the  carpels  themselves  do  not  ripen.  They  re- 
main hard  and  dry,  and  it  is  the  receptacle  which 
ripens  into  the  juicy  fruit,  holding  the  carpels 
on  the  outside  as  seed-like  bodies.  The  lateral 
styles  can  still  be  seen,  even  when  the  fruit  is 
quite  ripe. 

The  last  group,  the  Apple,  Pear,  and  Quince, 
have  fruit  where  the  calyx,  receptacle,  and  car- 
pels are  all  consolidated  into  a  single  juicy  fruit. 
We  will  describe  this  in  the  following  lesson. 

THE  FRUIT. 

The  Rose  family  supplies  so  large  a  part  of 
our  common  fruits  that  it  seems  desirable  to  in- 
troduce the  subject  here. 


AND   THEIR    ALLIES.  143 

Early  in  May  apples  are  still  in  the  market, 
southern  strawberries  can  be  obtained,  some  of 
the  summer  berries  can  be  studied  in  a  green 
state,  while  oranges,  bananas,  and  nuts  can  be 
procured  at  any  time. 

The  fruit  is  the  ripened  ovary.  In  ordinary 
use,  the  term  includes  whatever  other  parts  of 
the  flower  may  adhere  to  and  ripen  with  the 
ovary. 

We  may  divide  fruits  into  those  resulting  from 
a  single  flower,  and  those  resulting  from  the  rip- 
ening of  two  or  more  flowers.  Both  these  classes 
may  be  divided,  according  to  their  consistency, 
into  dry  fruits  and  fleshy  fruits.  Let  the  pupils 
make  these  headings  in  their  notebooks  and  place 
the  fruits  studied  under  the  right  headings. 

We  must  remember  that  all  such  classifica- 
tions are  artificial  and  simply  for  purposes  of 
convenience.  They  help  pupils  to  remember  the 
terms  applied  to  different  forms,  and  to  recog- 
nize relationships. 

We  divide  dry  fruits  into  those  which  open  to 
discharge  their  seeds  (dehiscent],  and  those  which 
remain  closed  (indehiscent).  The  former  are 


144  BLOSSOMING   FRUIT-TREES 

called  pods.  Fleshy  fruits  are  generally  inde- 
hiscent. 

We  may  divide  pods  again  into  two  classes, 
those  resulting  from  a  single  carpel  (simple)? 
and  those  resulting  from  several  carpels  united 
(compound). 

The  Spiraea,  belonging  to  the  Rose  family,  has 
a  simple  pod ;  that  is,  consisting  of  a  single  car- 
pel. Our  native  Spiraeas  are  all  summer  flowers, 
but  we  have  several  early  blossoming  kinds  in 
our  gardens.  This  pod  splits  only  on  one  side. 
We  have  had  a  similar  pod  in  the  Caltha.  This 
kind  of  pod  is  a,  follicle. 

The  most  familiar  example  of  a  pod  is  a  Pea 
pod.  This  splits  on  both  edges,  as  all  of  us 
know  who  have  shelled  peas.  A  pod  of  one  car- 
pel which  splits  on  both  edges  is  called  a  legume, 
and  from  this  term  the  whole  Pulse  family  takes 
its  name  (Leguminosce). 

We  have  had  many  examples  of  pods  result- 

The  word  simple  is  applied  in  our  text-book  to  fruits  re- 
sulting from  a  single  pistil.  But  we  use  the  term  pistil  to  in- 
clude the  whole  seed-bearing  portion  of  the  flower,  and  our  unit 
is  the  carpel,  or  single  seed-leaf.  We  must  therefore  use  the 
term  simple  fruit  to  apply  only  to  the  ripened  single  carpel. 


AND   THEIR   ALLIES.  145 

ing  from  a  compound  pistil.  They  are  called 
capsules,  and  the  pods  of  the  Tulip,  the  Blood- 
Root,  the  Violet,  and  many  others  are  examples. 

Indehiscent  fruits  have  usually  only  one  seed, 
for  it  would  be  useless  for  them  to  have  many 
seeds,  which  would  not  be  dispersed. 

An  akene  is  a  small  indehiscent  fruit  with  a 
single  seed.  We  have  had  plenty  of  examples 
in  the  members  of  the  Crowfoot  and  the  Rose 
families.  They  are  very  often  mistaken  for 
seeds.  An  akene  like  that  of  the  Maple  and 
Ash,  with  wings,  is  called  a  key-fruit,  or  samara. 

A  chestnut  is  a  good  example  of  a  nut.  It  has 
a  hard  shell,  instead  of  a  thin  outer  coat,  and 
has  several  cells  with  one  or  two  ovules  in  each 
cell.  Generally  only  one  of  these  ovules  ripens 
into  a  seed,  but  every  girl  knows  that  there  are 
sometimes  two  kernels  in  a  nut,  which  she  uses 
for  a  philopoena.  In  the  process  of  ripening  the 
wall  of  the  ovary  has  become  thick  and  hard, 
and  the  ovule  has  ripened  into  a  fleshy,  edible 
seed.  The  food  was  put  there  for  the  seedlings, 
however,  not  for  the  use  of  animals,  which  is 
the  reason  that  it  needs  a  good,  strong,  indehis- 


146  BLOSSOMING    FRUIT-TREES 

cent  shell  to  protect  it.  Many  nuts  have  an 
involucre  for  a  further  covering,  which  is  often 
prickly,  as  in  the  chestnut.1 

Let  us  now  examine  some  fleshy  fruits.  It  is 
an  excellent  plan  to  study  cherries  in  various 
stages  of  ripening,  and  to  watch  the  formation 
of  the  stone.  The  inner  wall  of  the  ovary  be- 
comes gradually  hard  and  stony,  while  the  outer 
becomes  fleshy  and  pulpy.  The  seed  is  therefore 
within  the  stone.  Peaches  and  plums  are  simi- 
lar to  the  cherry.  All  these  fruits  are  formed  of 
the  ripened  ovary,  without  any  other  part  of  the 
flower.  They  are  called  stone-fruits,  or  drupes. 

A  'berry  differs  from  a  drupe  in  having  the 
wall  of  the  ovary  turn  fleshy  all  through,  instead 
of  the  inner  wall  becoming  hard.  A  grape  is  a 
true  berry  ;  so  is  a  tomato.  An  orange  is  a  berry 
with  a  separable  rind,  which  has  received  a 
special  name  (Hesperidium),  from  the  gardens  of 
the  Hesperides,  where  the  wonderful  golden 
apples  grew.  It  is  interesting  to  trace  where 
the  pulp  comes  from  in  these  fruits.  In  the 
grape  the  pulp  is  developed  from  the  wall  of 

1  Reader  in  Botany.     IX. 


AND   THEIR    ALLIES.  147 

the  ovary ;  in  the  tomato,  from  this  wall  and 
from  the  placentae  also ;  in  the  orange,  princi- 
pally from  the  hairs  which  line  the  ovary. 

In  all  these  the  ovary  alone  ripens,  but  ba- 
nanas, currants,  blueberries,  and  cranberries  are 
berries  with  an  adherent  calyx.  The  banana 
skin,  which  we  split  and  tear  away,  is  the  calyx 
united  to  the  outer  wall  of  the  ovary,  and  the 
three  carpels  are  plainly  distinguishable.  It 
always  amuses  a  class  to  show  them  that 
oranges,  tomatoes,  and  bananas  are  technically 
berries,  while  huckleberries,  raspberries,  and 
blackberries  are  not.  The  botanical  definition 
of  a  berry  is  a  fruit  where  the  wall  of  the  ovary 
is  fleshy  throughout.  This  definition  does  not 
apply  to  the  three  fruits  last  mentioned,  for  each 
carpel  has  a  little  stone,  and  they  are  therefore 
a  collection  of  drupes,  or  stone-fruits.  Each  of 
these  grains  is  called  a  drupelet. 

A  third  division  of  fleshy  fruits  are  classified 
under  the  name  si  pome.  These  are  fleshy  fruits 
where  both  the  calyx  and  the  receptacle  form  a 
part  of  the  fruit,  as  in  the  apple,  pear,  and 
quince.  In  the  apple,  both  calyx  and  receptacle 


148  BLOSSOMING    FRUIT-TREES 

have  become  fleshy  (Fig.  18,  6).  The  walls  of 
the  carpels  are  hard  and  papery.  They  are  the 
little  tough  bits  that  are  apt  to  get  between 
your  teeth  when  you  are  eating  an  apple.  The 
ten  dots  to  be  seen  in  the  cross  section  of  the 
apple  are  the  ends  of  the  fibro- vascular  bundles 
belonging  to  the  calyx  and  corolla.  The  quince 
is  like  the  apple,  except  that  the  receptacle  has 
not  become  fleshy,  and  the  centre  of  the  fruit  is 
therefore  hollow. 

The  raspberry  and  blackberry  are  aggregate 
fruits ;  that  is,  they  are  formed  of  many  separate 
carpels,  belonging  to  a  single  flower,  that  become 
consolidated  in  fruit.  We  call  the  dry  fruit  of 
Buttercup  a  head  of  akenes ;  a  blackberry  is  a 
head  of  drupelets.  In  the  raspberry,  the  recepta- 
cle is  dry  and  the  fruit  separates  from  it ;  in  the 
blackberry,  the  receptacle  also  ripens  and  be- 
comes a  part  of  the  fruit. 

When  the  principal  part  of  the  fruit  belongs 
to  something  outside  of  the  flower,  the  fruit  is 
accessory,  and  of  this  we  have  an  excellent  ex- 
ample in  the  strawberry,  where  the  receptacle  is 
the  edible  part.  This  is  a  good  example  also  of 


AND   THEIK    ALLIES.  149 

the  difference  between  the  two  definitions  of 
fruit,  —  the  restricted  one,  where  the  fruit  is  the 
ripened  ovary,  and  the  popular  one,  where  it 
consists  also  of  whatever  parts  may  ripen  with 
the  ovary.  In  the  first  sense  the  fruit  of  the 
Strawberry  would  be  described  as  a  collection  of 
akenes ;  in  the  second,  as  an  accessory  fruit. 

Multiple  or  collective  fruits  are  those  which 
result  from  the  ripening  of  two  or  more  flowers 
into  a  single  fruit.  The  fig  is  a  good  example. 
It  is  like  a  Rose-hip,  except  that  the  hollow 
flower-stalk  contains  many  separate  flowers,  in- 
stead of  carpels  belonging  to  one  flower.  The 
little,  seed-like  bodies  in  the  fig  are  the  ovaries 
of  as  many  separate  flowers,  contained  in  a  hol- 
low flower-stalk,  which  has  grown  pulpy  and 
soft.  The  pineapple  is  a  cluster  of  flowers  where 
all  the  parts  (the  bracts,  stem,  and  calyx  belong- 
ing to  each  flower)  ripen,  become  juicy,  and 
unite  into  one  fleshy  mass.  The  axis  of  the 
stem  grows  on  beyond  the  pineapple  into  a  leafy 
branch.  The  Pineapple  plant  is  always  propa- 
gated by  cuttings,  the  flowers  being  sterile. 

The  cone  has  always  been  described  as  a  mul- 


150  BLOSSOMING   FRUIT-TREES 

tiple  fruit.  But,  if  the  view  taken  by  Goebel 
that  the  whole  cluster  is  a  single  flower  be  cor- 
rect, we  cannot  place  it  in  this  division. 

The  mulberry  is  formed  from  a  cluster  of 
flowers,  which  ripen  into  a  single  mass  and 
become  a  multiple  fruit. 

The  partridge-berry  is  an  example  of  a  very 
simple  kind  of  multiple  fruit,  where  the  two 
ovaries  are  united  into  one  berry-like  fruit. 

After  this  lesson  full  descriptions  of  the  fruit 
of  the  plants  examined  should  always  be  re- 
quired, whenever  it  can  be  obtained.  See  the 
descriptions  of  the  members  of  the  Rose  family 
in  the  Appendix. 

Grays  Lessons,  345-379. 


AND   THEIR   ALLIES.  151 

CLASSIFICATION   OP   FRUITS. 

FRUITS   RESULTING  FROM  A  SINGLE   FLOWER. 

f  Simple  (of       f  Follicle Caltha* 

I  one  carpel)      1  Legume . . .  Pea 
Dehiscent  -    Pod  •{  Compound 

(of  two  or       -j  Capsule . . .  Violet 
Dry  •{  (  more  carpels)  [ 

f  Akene Buttercup 

Indehiscent j  Nut Chestnut 

j  Aggregate 

L      fruit Potentilla 


f  Berry Grape 

Drupe Peach 

j  Pome Apple 

Flesliy \  Aggregate 

fruit Raspberry 

Accessory 

fruit Strawberry 


FRUITS    RESULTING   FROM   TWO   OR   MORE   FLOWERS. 

pig 

Multiple  or  Collective  Fruits J  Pineapple 

1  Mulberry 

[  Partridge- Berry 


VIII. 

• 

LATER   SPRING   FLOWERS. 

BUTTERCUP  (Ranunculus  bulbosus).1 

WE  return  to  the  Crowfoot  family  (Ranuncu- 
lacece),  which  contains  so  many  of  our  spring 
flowers.  The  Buttercup  strongly  resembles  the 
Hepatica  and  Anemone,  but  the  general  ap- 
pearance of  a  flower  is  not  a  very  safe  way  to 
judge  of  relationships,  for  a  beginner,  at  least, 
for  mere  form  goes  a  very  little  way  in  classi- 
fying a  plant.  When  the  pupils  have  made 
their  descriptions  and  learned  the  adnation  of 
the  flower,  and  the  structure  of  the  stamens  and 
pistil,  they  can  turn  to  their  previous  descrip- 
tions of  other  flowers  of  the  Crowfoot  family, 
and  compare  the  Buttercup  with  them. 

The  root  of  this  particular  plant  that  we  are 
now  examining  has  a  bulb,  but  we  shall  see,  if 

1  Appendix,  p.  324 


152 


LATER    SPRING    FLOWERS.  153 

we  gather  other  kinds  of  Buttercups,  that  this 
is  not  a  character  of  the  genus.  It  is,  in  fact, 
peculiar  to  the  species,  and  we  know  at  once 
that  we  have  Ranunculus  bulbosus,  for  from  the 
presence  of  the  bulb  the  plant  takes  its  specific 
name  (Fig.  21,  i,  2). 

The  leaves  are  radical,  enclosing  the  bulb  with 
the  dilated  bases  of  the  petioles.  They  are 
palmately  compound,  with  three  divisions,  cut 
and  incised. 

The  Buttercup  is  a  regular  flower.  It  is  also 
complete,  differing  in  this  particular  from  any 
of  its  family  that  we  have  before  studied.  It 
has  a  calyx  of  five  sepals,  a  corolla  of  five  petals, 
many  distinct  stamens  with  innate  anthers  (Fig. 
21,  4),  and  an  apocarpous  pistil  of  many  carpels 
in  a  head.  All  the  parts  are  distinct  and  free. 
This  will  make  us  place  it  in  the  Crowfoot 
family.  There  are  a  few  other  families  in  our 
Manual,  which  have  the  parts  all  free  and  dis- 
tinct, but  they  contain  trees  and  shrubs,  except 
the  Barberry  family  (Berberidacece),  which  may 
be  distinguished  by  having  as  many  stamens  as 
the  petals,  and  opposite  to  them. 


154  LATER   SPRING   FLOWERS. 

Miiller  says  that  the  little  scale  at  the  base 
of  each  petal  of  the  Buttercup  secretes  nectar. 
I  have  not  been  able  to  see  or  to  taste  it,  and  it 
seems  to  me  that  the  flowers  are  visited  by  insects 
rarely,  and  then  chiefly  for  the  pollen,  which  is 
very  abundant.  The  outer  anthers  dehisce  first, 
each  stamen  bending  outwards  when  discharging. 

The  stigmas  develop  more  slowly  and  are  cov- 
ered and  protected  from  contact  in  the  young 
flowers  by  the  inner  anthers.  Later,  when  the 
innermost  anthers  are  dehiscing,  the  stigmas  are 
fully  developed.  Therefore,  an  insect  alighting 
first  in  the  centre  of  an  older  flower  would  effect 
cross-fertilization,  while  if  it  alighted  on  the  out- 
side of  the  flower  and  touched  first  the  anthers 
and  then  the  stigma  it  might  effect  either  cross- 
fertilization  or  self-fertilization.  Miiller  states 
that  the  modes  of  alighting  are  about  equally 
common.  If  no  insects  visit  the  flower,  it  may 
be  fertilized  by  the  outermost  stigmas  touching 
the  innermost  anthers.1 

The  fruit  of  the  Buttercup  is  a  head  of  akenes. 
Each  carpel  has  a  sessile  stigma,  slightly  beaked 

(Fig.  21,5,6,7). 

1  The  Fertilization  of  Flowers,  pp.  74-77. 


FIG.  21.  —  Buttercup.  1.  Whole  plant.  2.  Section  of  bulb.  3.  Seclioii  of  flower. 
4.  Stamens.  5.  Carpel.  6.  Section  of  carpel.  7.  Head  of  carpel* 
in  fruit.  8.  Diagram  (Eichler). 


LATER    SPRING   FLOWERS.  155 

WILD  COLUMBINE  (Aquilegia  Canadensis).1 

The  Columbine  is  one  of  our  most  attractive 
wild  flowers.  Its  nodding  blossoms  with  the 
upturned  spurs  are  pretty  to  look  at  and  pleas- 
ant to  study.  The  name,  Aquilegia,  has  been 
thought  to  refer  to  the  resemblance  of  the  spurs 
to  eagle's  talons,  but  the  derivation  is  uncertain. 
So  also  is  the  meaning  of  the  name  Columbine 
(Latin,  columba,  a  dove).  The  prettiest  explana- 
tion is  that  of  Prior,  who  says  that  the  resem- 
blance of  the  ends  of  the  spurs  to  the  heads  of 
pigeons  around  a  dish,  a  device  we  often  see  in 
Roman  mosaics,  gave  the  flower  its  name.2 

We  suppose  always  in  these  outlines  of  les- 
sons that  the  pupil  makes  as  full  a  description 
of  each  flower  as  his  knowledge  will  permit. 
We  mention  here  only  the  characters  that  seem 
to  call  for  special  mention.  A  full  description 
will  always  be  found  in  the  Appendix. 

The  Columbine  has  a  short  tap-root  (Fig. 
22,  i).  The  leaves  are  both  radical,  springing 

1  Appendix,  p.  325. 

2  Popular  Names  of  British  Plants,  eel.  2,  p.  51. 


156  LATER    SPRING   FLOWERS. 

apparently  from  the  root,  and  cauline,  on  the 
stem  above  ground.  These  words  are  very  un- 
fortunately chosen  for  our  present  state  of  knowl- 
edge, because  all  leaves  are  cauline  and  belong 
to  the  stem,  but  no  one  has  yet  suggested  any 
better  terms,  and  these  will  be  found  in  all  our 
text-books  and  manuals.  The  leaves  are  alike, 
except  that  the  radical  leaves  are  twice  compound, 
while  the  cauline  leaves  are  once  compound,  the 
divisions  deeply  parted,  or  even  less  divided. 
The  bracts  are  like  the  leaves,  but  less  cut. 

The  most  noticeable  thing  about  the  flower  is 
the  shape  of  its  petals.  They  are  hollow  spurs, 
and  the  pupil  will  soon  discover  that  they  con- 
tain nectar,  and  will  notice,  if  his  attention  is 
called  to  it,  that  the  stamens  are  bent  down- 
wards before  the  anthers  are  mature,  but  as  they 
become  ready  to  discharge  their  pollen  they  rise 
and  stand  erect  around  the  styles  below  the  stig- 
mas. The  inner  stamens  are  longer  than  the 
outer,  and  dehisce  first,  reversing  the  order  of 
the  Buttercup.  The  change  in  the  position  of 
the  anthers  is  also  the  reverse  of  that  of  the 
Buttercup,  where  the  stamens  bend  down  while 


FIG.  22. —  Columbine.     1.  Whole  plant.      2.  Section  of  flower.      3.  Fruit. 
4.  Diagram. 


LATER   SPRING   FLOWERS.  157 

discharging.  The  explanation  of  the  difference 
would  undoubtedly  be  found  by  watching  the 
insects  at  work.  Miiller  and  Sprengel l  describe 
carefully  the  fertilization  of  Aquilegia  vulgaris, 
the  common  Garden  Columbine,  but  this  plant 
has  hooked  spurs.  Dr.  Goodale  says,  "  It  is  not 
yet  quite  clear  in  what  way  the  visiting  insects 
aid  in  the  fertilization,  but  there  is  good  reason 
for  believing  that  they  carry  pollen  from  younger 
flowers  to  the  stigmas  of  older  blossoms."  It 
is  rather  strange  that,  with  so  much  investiga- 
tion going  on,  the  fertilization  of  such  a  com- 
mon flower  as  the  Columbine  should  not  be 
understood,  but  the  fact  is  that  most  investiga- 
tors concern  themselves  principally  with  histo- 
logical  matters,  and  there  is  an  endless  field  of 
inquiry  open  to  any  one  who  knows  how  to  use 
his  eyes.  This  being  the  case,  what  study  could 
be  made  more  interesting  and  stimulating  to  the 
boys  and  girls  of  a  country  academy  than  the 
study  of  the  flora  of  their  neighborhood  ?  A 

1  The  Fertilization  of  Flowers,  p.  81.    Das  Entcleckte  Geheim- 
niss  der  Natur,  p.  279.     See  also  American  Naturalist,  XIV,  pp. 
731-737.     The  Fertilization  of  Aquilegia  vulgaris.     W.  Trelease. 

2  Wild  Flowers  of  America,  p.  4. 


158  LATER    SPRING    FLOWERS. 

good  teacher  might  direct  and  collate  such  ob- 
servations so  as  to  add  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
life-habits  of  our  plants. 

The  inner  stamens  of  the  Columbine  are  ster- 
ile and  membranaceous.  I  can  find  no  sugges- 
tion as  to  their  use  in  the  economy  of  the  flower. 
The  anthers  are  innate,  as  in  all  the  members  of 
the  family.  The  Rose  family  has  innate  anthers 
also. 

The  Columbine  has  a  compound,  apocarpous 
pistil,  of  five  or  more  carpels.  The  resemblance 
of  the  open  carpel  to  a  leaf,  after  the  seeds  have 
discharged,  is  very  striking.  It  is  used  as  an 
illustration  of  the  theory  of  the  flower  (chapter 
xii).  The  fruit  will  not  be  ripe  when  the  flower 
is  studied. 

The  seeds  are  small,  black,  and  shining. 
Tiie  carpels  change  from  a  nodding  position  in 
the  flower  and  become  erect  in  fruit.  They  split 
towards  the  top,  and  when  swayed  by  the  wind 
the  seeds  are  thrown  out  to  a  little  distance. 

The  pupils  should  have  no  difficulty  in  placing 
the  Columbine  in  the  Eanunculacece.  The  flower 
shows  that  form  is  not  of  very  much  significance 


LATER    SPRING   FLOWERS.  159 

in  classification,  for  it  bears  very  little  resem- 
blance to  the  Buttercup  and  Anemone. 

PALE  CORYDALIS  (Corydalis  glauca).1 

This  pretty  little  flower  lasts  sparingly  all 
through  the  summer,  and  may  even  be  found 
late  in  the  fall.  It  has  a  delicate  look  from  the 
smooth,  pale  green  (glaucous)  leaves  and  stem. 
It  takes  both  its  specific  name,  glauca,  and  its 
common  name,  the  Pale  Corydalis,  from  this 
characteristic.  The  leaves  are  compound  and 
very  much  dissected.  The  root  is  biennial,  a 
thick  tap-root. 

The  flowers  are  nodding,  rose-colored,  tinged 
with  yellow  at  the  tips  of  the  petajs.  They  are 
in  long,  loose  terminal  clusters,  the  oldest  flow- 
ers at  the  bottom  (raceme). 

There  are  two  very  small  sepals,  and  four 
petals,  the  upper  petal  with  a  blunt  spur.  The 
lower  petal  is  boat-shaped,  and  both  of  these 
petals  have  yellow,  reflexed  tips.  The  lateral 
petals  are  spoon-shaped,  with  thick  crested  tips 
which  unite  to  make  a  hood  over  the  anthers 

1  Appendix,  p.  326. 


160  LATER    SPUING   FLOWERS. 

and  stigma.  An  insect  in  search  of  nectar 
alights  on  this  hood,  which  is  in  the  centre  of 
the  flower,  and  thrusts  its  proboscis  between  the 
hood  and  the  upper  petal.  The  weight  of  his 
body  presses  the  petals  downwards,  but  the  style, 
being  stiff,  does  not  bend,  and  strikes  the  insect's 
body. 

The  stamens  mature  before  the  style  (pro- 
terandrous),  and  this  insures  cross-fertilization. 
When  the  pollen  is  ripe  it  is  discharged  with  great 
suddenness  when  the  stamens  are  disturbed. 

The  pods  are  long,  linear,  erect,  and  one- 
celled,  with  two  placentae  on  the  walls.  The 
seeds  have  a  little  spongy  crest  at  the  base, 
called  a  caruncle,  or,  more  properly,  perhaps, 
strophiole.  They  are  shining  and  wrinkled. 

The  Corydalis  belongs  among  the  polypeta- 
lous  families  with  hypogynous  corolla  and  sta- 
mens, the  first  group  on  the  schedule.  The  dis- 
sected leaves,  watery  juice,  four  irregular  petals, 
six  stamens  in  two  sets,  and  one-celled  pod  with 
two  parietal  placentae,  mark  it  as  belonging  to 
the  Fumitory  family  (Fumariacece). 

The  Dutchman's  Breeches  (Dicentra  Canaden- 


LATER    SPRING   FLOWERS.  161 

sis)  is  another  spring  plant  belonging  to  this 
family.  This  flower  has  a  two-spurred  corolla, 
making  a  heart-shaped  blossom.  The  common 
Garden  Dicentra,  known  as  Dielytra,  is  also  a 
very  interesting  flower. 

WILD  SARSAPARILLA  (Aralia  nudicaulis).1 

This  plant  blossoms  in  May.  It  has  long, 
thick,  aromatic  rootstocks,  which  are  used  as  a 
substitute  for  Sarsaparilla,  and  give  the  plant 
its  common  name. 

The  single  leaf  consists  of  three  primary 
divisions,  each  with  five,  pinnately-arranged, 
lance-ovate  .leaflets.  It  arises  from  near  the 
ground,  and  in  its  axil  is  a  scape  bearing  three 
umbels  of  flowers  with  a  few  tiny  bracts  at  the 
base  of  each  umbel. 

The  flowers  are  complete,  but  the  calyx  is 
minute  and  deciduous,  so  that  it  is  very  easy  to 
mistake  the  corolla  for  a  single  perianth  circle. 
The  petals  are  five,  small,  greenish,  and  on  top 
of  the  ovary.  The  stamens  are  also  epigynous. 
The  ovary  is  five-celled  with  five  styles. 

1  Appendix,  p.  328. 


162  LATER    SPRING   FLOWERS. 

The  fruit  of  the  Wild  Sarsaparilla  is  a  dark 
blue,  berry-like  drupe. 

The  Aralia  is  the  only  genus  we  have  belong- 
ing to  Araliacece,  the  Ginseng  family.  This 
family  belongs  in  the  last  division  on  our 
schedule  of  the  polypetalous  plants,  and  is  dis- 
tinguished by  having  the  flowers  in  umbels,  the 
parts  all  in  fives,  several  styles,  and  the  fruit  a 
fleshy  drupe.  We  shall  see  that  it  resembles 
greatly  a  large  and  important  family  which  we 
shall  soon  study,  the  Umbelliferee,  but  is  dis- 
tinguished from  that  family  by  the  five  styles 
and  the  fleshy  fruit. 

Another  very  nearly  related  family  is  the 
Cornel  family  (Comacea),  and  of  this  we  have 
a  beautiful  specimen  at  this  season,  the  Flower- 
ing Dogwood  (Cornus  fioridd). 

This  is  a  shrub  very  abundant  in  the  woods 
of  the  Middle  and  Southern  States,  though  not 
so  common  in  New  England. 

The  showy  parts  of  this  plant  are  the  large 
white  bracts  which  surround  the  clusters  of  small 
regular  flowers  and  play  the  part  of  attractive 
organs  to  insects. 


LATER    SPRING    FLOWERS.  163 

This  family  may  be  distinguished  in  the 
epigynous  group  by  the  single  style,  the  single 
ovule  hanging  from  the  top  of  each  cell  (pen- 
dulous), and  the  one  to  two-seeded  drupe.  The 
species  are  all  shrubs  and  trees,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  dwarf  Cornel,  or  Bunchberry,  and 
the  stem  of  this  low  plant  is  woody. 

In  this  connection  a  lesson  on  the  Honeysuckle 
family  (Caprifoliacece)  will  be  appropriate.  The 
Hobble-Bush  ( Viburnum  lantanoides)  and  some 
of  the  other  Viburnums  flower  at  about  this  time, 
as  well  as  some  of  the  garden  Honeysuckles. 
The  evident  relationship  between  the  Viburnum 
and  the  Cornus,  for  instance,  will  disabuse  the 
minds  of  the  pupils  of  the  idea  that  there  is  a 
great  gulf  fixed  between  the  polypetalous  and 
gamopetalous  orders.  A  plant  belonging  to  the 
Honeysuckle  family,  the  Diervilla,  is  described 
in  the  first  chapter  on  Early  Summer  Flowers. 

FKINGED  POLYGALA  (Polyyala  Paucifolia).1 

Our  little  fringed  Polygala  is  a  difficult  plant 
to  analyze,  it  is  so  extremely  irregular.  Begin- 

1  Appendix,  p.  329. 


164  LATER    SPUING    FLOWERS. 

ning  at  the  outside  on  the  top  of  the  flower,  we 
find  a  boat-shaped  sepal,  beneath  which  the  ovary 
is  found,  jutting  out  between  the  lateral  petals. 
On  the  same  plane  as  this  upper  sepal  we  find 
two  broad  and  brilliantly  colored  wings,  which 
are  the  lateral  sepals,  and  below  two  small  lance- 
olate, greenish  perianth  leaves,  which  are  the 
lower  sepals.  These  five  very  diverse  sepals 
make  the  calyx. 

Within,  we  find  two  lateral  petals  united  in  a 
tube  with  a  lower  petal,  which  is  crested  at  the 
tip.  The  border  of  the  tube  is  three-lobed. 
The  rudiments  of  the  two  upper  petals  are  found 
as  a  double  gland  at  the  base  of  the  upper  sepal. 

There  are  six  stamens,  united  in  two  sets  of 
three,  adnate  to  the  lateral  petals. 

The  ovary  is  flattened  and  two-celled,  with  a 
single  ovule  in  each  cell.  The  fruit  is  a  flat- 
tened pod,  rounded  and  notched  at  the  apex, 
and  two-seeded. 

The  seed  has  a  lobe  called  a  caruncle. 

The  plant  is  low,  with  short,  flowering  stems 
from  long,  underground  branches,  which  bear  also 
tiny  subterranean  flowers  (cleistogamous  flowers). 


LATER    SPRING    FLOWERS.  165 

The  latter  look  like  small  buds,  and  contain 
rudimentary  petals  and  few  stamens,  containing 
pollen-grains,  which  send  out  the  pollen-tubes  and 
fertilize  the  ovules  without  leaving  the  anther. 
These  flowers  develop  good  pods  and  seeds. 

The  lower  leaves  of  the  flowering  stems  are 
scale-like  ;  the  upper  leaves  are  crowded  near  the 
summit.  The  flowers  terminate  the  stem,  and 
are  rather  showy,  rose-purple,  with  large  wings 
and  a  keeled,  fringe-crested  lower  petal. 

The  style  is  longer  than  the  stamens  and  curved, 
following  the  line  of  the  keel.  The  anthers  are 
one-celled  and  open  by  a  chink  in  the  top. 

The  genus  Polygala  is  our  only  representative 
of  the  family  Polygalacece,  which  will  be  found 
among  the  flowers  with  hypogynous  corolla,  and 
may  be  recognized  by  its  very  irregular  flowers 
with  one-celled  anthers  opening  at  the -top,  and 
the  two-celled,  two-seeded  pod. 

BARBERRY  (Berberis  vulgaris).1 

One  of  our  favorite  adopted  citizens  of  the 
wild  garden  is  the  Barberry,  with  its  graceful, 

1  Appendix,  p.  330. 


166  LATER    SPRING   FLOWERS. 

recurved  branches,  bearing  yellow  drooping 
flower-clusters,  or  brilliant  scarlet  berries. 

The  shrub  is  a  native  of  Europe,  but  has 
become  well  established  in  New  England.  The 
leaves  are  alternate,  in  clusters  in  the  axils  of 
branched  spines,  which  are  modified  leaves  of 
the  preceding  season.  The  petiole  of  each  leaf 
is  jointed.  This  joint  shows  its  relationship  to 
the  pinnate  or  three-parted  leaf  possessed  by 
other  members  of  the  family.  It  is  a  compound 
leaf  reduced  to  a  single  member. 

The  flowers  are  small  and  regular,  in  droop- 
ing, many-flowered  racemes.  They  have  six 
sepals,  six  petals,  six  stamens,  and  a  simple  pis- 
til. At  the  base  of  each  petal  are  two  fleshy, 
orange-colored  nectar-glands,  which  make  the 
flower  more  conspicuous. 

The  stamens  are  opposite  the  petals,  and  the 
anthers  open  by  uplifted  valves,  hinged  at  the 
top.  These  characters  belong  to  the  Barberry 
family  (Berberidacece) . 

The  stamens  are  sensitive.  A  touch  at  the 
base  of  the  filament  will  cause  the  stamen  to  fly 
up  towards  the  centre  of  the  flower,  exploding 


LATER   SPRING   FLOWERS.  167 

the  pollen.  Sprengel  supposed  that  this  move- 
ment caused  self-fertilization,  by  the  pollen 
being  thrown  on  the  stigma.  Miiller,  however, 
shows  that  it  is  generally  thrown  against  the 
visiting  insect,  and  that  cross-fertilization  is  the 
more  usual  result.1 

The  berries  of  the  Barberry  are  very  acid  and 
are  little  eaten  by  birds.  There  are  few  seeds. 
The  seeds  have  a  hard  covering. 

The  family  to  which  the  Barberry  belongs 
takes  its  name  from  that  genus.  It  will  be 
found  near  the  beginning  of  our  schedule,  and 
is  distinguished  by  opposite  stamens,  anthers 
opening  by  uplifted  valves,  and  a  simple  pistil. 
Certain  exceptions  may  be  noted.  The  May- 
Apple  (Podophyllum)  has  anthers  which  do  not 
open  by  uplifted  valves. 

JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT  ;  INDIAN  TURNIP  (Ariscema 
tripliyllwji)? 

We  come  now  to  a  flower  representing  an 
entirely  different  class  from  those  which  we 
have  lately  studied. 

1  The  Fertilization  of  Flowers,  p.  92.      2  Appendix,  p.  331. 


168  LATER    SPRING    FLOWERS. 

If  we  pick  a  number  of  specimens  of  our  com- 
mon Indian  Turnip,  and  selecting  one,  open  the 
enfolding  leaf,  we  shall  find  within  a  smooth, 
pale  green,  club-shaped  spike,  with  a  group  of 
organs  about  its  base.  These  organs  differ  in 
different  plants,  and  we  had  better  begin  by 
separating  our  specimens  into  two  heaps,  plac- 
ing those  which  are  alike  together,  and  distrib- 
uting one  of  each  kind  to  each  pupil. 

In  one  of  the  heaps  we  shall  find  flowers  in 
which  the  group  of  organs  consist  plainly  of 
stamens.  We  recognize  them  by  their  nearly 
sessile  anthers,  opening  by  pores  in  the  top. 
These  anthers,  looked  at  through  a  lens,  are  seen 
to  be  either  two-celled  or  four-celled,  and  are 
arranged  in  groups  of  two  or  three  (Fig.  23,  2). 

The  other  set  of  specimens  will  be  found  to 
resemble  the  first,  except  that  the  organs  are 
one-celled  ovaries,  tipped  with  a  depressed 
stigma  (Fig.  23, 3,  4).  We  regard  each  group  of 
stamens  or  single  ovary  as  belonging  to  a  sepa- 
rate flower,  because  we  have  very  nearly  related 
plants,  such  as  the  Skunk-Cabbage  (Symplocarpus 
fwtida),  where  there  are  floral  envelopes  around 


FIG.  23.—  Jack-in-the-Pulpit.  1.  Whole  plant.  2.  Spike  with  staminate  flowers 
only.  3.  Spike  with  both  pistillate  and  staminate  flowers.  4.  Spike 
with  pistil  late  flowers  only.  5.  Fruit. 


LATER   SPRING   FLOWERS.  169 

each  corresponding  group  of  organs.  In  the 
Arisaema  there  is  no  trace  of  calyx  or  corolla. 

The  flower-stalk  upon  which  these  very  sim- 
ple flowers  are  inserted  is  prolonged  into  a  club- 
shaped  appendage,  and  is  called  a  spadix.  In 
the  Skunk-Cabbage  the  flowers  cover  the  whole 
of  the  spadix,  but  in  our  Arissema  we  describe 
their  inflorescence  by  saying,  "  flowers  clustered 
on  the  base  of  a  naked  spadix." 

The  hooded  covering  is  a  bract,  since  it  sur- 
rounds a  cluster  of  flowers,  and  a  bract  of  this 
kind  surrounding  a  spadix  is  called  a  spatlw. 

We  might  call  the  flowers  of  Indian  Turnip, 
"flowers  reduced  to  their  smallest  terms/'  for 
one  kind  consists  simply  of  a  group  of  stamens, 
and  the  other  of  a  one-celled  ovary,  crowned 
with  a  sessile  stigma. 

Sometimes  we  find  spikes  with  both  stamens 
and  pistils  (androgynous).  When  this  is  the 
case  the  staminate  flowers  are  above  and  the 
pistillate  flowers  below.  Such  a  flower  may  be 
seen  in  Fig.  23,  3.  This  plant  is  monoecious, 
having  both  stamens  and  pistils ;  the  other  plants 
are  dioecious.  This  is  an  instructive  example 


UNIVERSITY 


170  LATER    SPRING   FLOWERS. 

of  the  way  in  which  a  plant  may  become  dioe- 
cious, by  the  gradual  abortion  of  one  kind  of 
flowers.  In  the  Skunk-Cabbage  the  flowers  are 
perfect,  with  both  stamens  and  pistils  in  the 
same  flower.  In  describing  such  flowers  as  the 
Arissema  we  must  be  careful  to  avoid  confusion 
in  the  use  of  the  word  flower.  In  ordinary 
language  we  apply  it  to  the  whole  cluster,  but, 
as  we  have  seen,  it  is  strictly  used  to  mean  each 
group  of  essential  organs,  with  or  without  floral 
envelopes. 

The  underground  part  of  the  plant  resembles 
the  Crocus,  the  nourishment  being  stored  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  stem.  This  corm  is  pun- 
gent, and  when  eaten  bites  the  tongue  severely, 
but  not  immediately.  The  acrid  qualities  are 
destroyed  by  long  boiling,  and  the  plant  is  some- 
times used  for  food,  whence  the  name  "  Indian 
Turnip." 

The  flower  is  probably  fertilized  by  flies,  but  I 
have  not  been  able  to  make  any  observations 
upon  it  nor  to  find  any  in  print.  It  would  be  a 
good  subject  for  investigation  by  the  pupils. 

The  fruit  is  a  cluster  of  red  berries,  contain- 


LATER    SPRING   FLOWERS.  171 

ing  from  one  to  four  seeds.  As  in  all  juicy 
berries  adapted  to  be  eaten,  the  seed-coats  are 
very  hard  and  indigestible.  The  seed  is  round, 
with  a  large  scar  at  the  base. 

A  beginner  would  be  likely  to  place  this  plant 
among  the  dicotyledons,  because  it  has  net-veined 
leaves,  but  it  is  an  exception  to  the  general  rule. 
In  the  key  of  the  Manual  it  is  placed  among  the 
plants  which  would  be  mistaken  for  dicotyledons 
on  account  of  their  foliage.  If  we  examine  the 
stem  we  shall  find  it  of  the  monocotyledonous 
type. 

In  the  monocotyledons  we  place  it  at  once  in 
the  spadiceous  division,  because  it  has  its  flowers 
upon  a  spadix.  The  most  important  family  in 
this  division  is  the  Arum  family  (Aracece),  to 
which  our  plant  belongs.  It  is  distinguished 
by  having  the  flowers  crowded  on  a  spadix, 
usually  surrounded  by  a  spathe,  and  the  fruit  a 
berry.  Other  members  of  this  family  are  the 
Water  Arum  (Calla  palustris),  the  Skunk-Cab- 
bage, and  among  house-plants,  the  beautiful 
Calla  Lily.  In  the  Calla  the  lowest  flowers  on 
the  spike  are  perfect,  while  the  upper  flowers 


172  LATER    SPRING    FLOWERS. 

are  staminate  only.  The  bract  is  so  very  con- 
spicuous that  it  is  always  spoken  of  as  constitut- 
ing the  flower.  In  the  Indian  Turnip  the  bracts 
vary  in  different  flowers.  Some  of  them  are 
green,  striped  with  darker  green  lines,  while 
others  are  striped  with  purple.  Dr.  Torrey,  in 
the  Flora  of  New  York,  states  that  the  green 
ones  are  staminate,  while  the  purple  ones  have 
pistillate  flowTers  only.  In  the  allied  English 
plant,  Lords  and  Ladies  (Arum  maculatum),  the 
purple  striped  ones  are  known  as  "Lords,"  the 
green  ones  as  "Ladies." 

STEMLESS  LADY'S  SLIPPER;  MOCCASON- 
FLOWER  (Cypripedium  acaule).1 

We  have  had  examples  of  several  monocoty- 
ledonous  families  with  colored  perianth,  the  Lily, 
the  Amaryllis,  and  the  Iris  families.  There  is 
another  family  in  this  group,  with  one  or  two 
stamens  only,  and  inferior  ovary,  which  we  have 
not  studied.  This  is  the  Orchis  family  (Orchi- 
dacece),  which  contains  a  great  many  rare  and 
wonderful  plants,  to  be  seen  in  greenhouses. 

1  Appendix,  p.  332. 


LATER    SPRING   FLOWERS.  173 

Some  of  them  are  epiphytes,  or  air-plants,  and 
store  up  their  food  in  swellings  of  the  lower 
internodes.  Almost  all  of  them  are  of  peculiar 
shapes,  and  adapted  in  the  most  wonderful  way 
for  cross-fertilization. 

Most  of  our  common  orchids  are  summer 
flowers,  but  there  is  a  beautiful  member  of  the 
family  to  be  found  in  May,  which  is  not  uncom- 
mon, the  Lady's  Slipper  (Cypripedium).  The 
stemless  Lady's  Slipper  (C.  acaale)  is  the  most 
widely  distributed  species  of  this  genus,  in  New 
England,  at  least. 

Making  a  vertical  section  of  the  flower  (Fig. 
24,  2),  we  see  all  the  parts  exposed  to  view. 
There  is  a  green  bract  at  the  base  of  the 
ovary,  apparently  on  the  upper  side  of  the 
flower.1 

Then  comes  the  calyx  (Fig.  24,  2,  c),  which  has 
two  lobes.  The  lower  lobe,  however,  is  larger 
and  composed  of  two  lobes  united,  as  the  flower 

1  The  bract  is  really  below  the  flower,  and  the  lip  is  really  the 
upper  petal.  A  twist  in  the  ovary  has  caused  the  lip  to  appear 
as  if  it  were  the  lower  petal  of  the  flower.  Parwin  disregards 
this  in  his  diagram  (Fig.  25),  but  the  true  arrangement  is  given 
in  the  diagram  copied  from  Eichler  (Fig.  24,  4) 


174  LATER    SPRING   FLOWERS. 

is  on  the  plan  of  three.  This  can  be  traced  in 
the  veining. 

The  corolla  has  three  petals.  The  lateral 
ones  droop,  and  are  long,  pointed,  and  oblique 
(Fig.  24,  2,  d).  They  look  so  much  like  the  sepals 
that  any  pupil  would  call  these  four  perianth 
leaves  the  calyx. 

The  third  petal  is  the  drooping  lip  (Fig.  24,  2,  e). 
This  is  a  large  pouch,  with  the  edges  turned 
inwards,  so  as  to  make  a  sort  of  pocket,  and 
thickly  covered  with  sticky  hairs. 

We  see  the  anthers  of  two  perfect  stamens 
(Fig.  24,  2,  3,  h),  one  on  each  side  of  the  style, 
and  united  with  it  to  form  the  column.  These 
anthers  are  two-celled,  and  covered  with  a  sticky 
varnish.  We  cannot  touch  them  with  a  pencil, 
without  carrying  away  some  of  the  pollen.  But 
what  is  the  petal-like  body  above  the  style,  cover- 
ing it  and  the  anthers  ?  It  is  united  to  the  fila- 
ments of  the  fertile  anthers,  and  forms  a  part  of 
what  is  known  in  this  family  as  the  column.  It 
is  a  sterile  stamen  (Fig.  24,  2,  3,  /). 

All  these  three  stamens  occupy  the  upper 
part  of  the  flower,  so  that  they  cannot  be 


FIG.  24.  — Lady's  Slipper.  1.  Flower-stalk  and  leaves.  2.  Section  of  flower: 
a,  bract;  b,  ovary;  c,  sepals;  d,  lateral  petal;  e,  lower  petal  (lip); 
/,  upper  stamen;  g,  stigma;  h,  lateral  stamen.  3.  Upper  stamen, 
with  lower  fertile  stamens  and  stigma.  4.  Diagram. 


* 

OF  THE  X 

UNIVERSITY 


LATER    SPRING    FLOWERS.  175 

regarded  as  a  single  circle  of  stamens,  alternat- 
ing with  the  corolla,  as  is  generally  the  case 
when  the  number  of  stamens  and  petals  is  the 
same.  There  is  a  stamen  opposite  each  of  the 
three  upper  divisions  of  the  perianth.  It  has 
been  shown  in  a  masterly  way  by  Darwin,  in  his 
wonderful  book,  the  Fertilization  of  Orchids,1 
that  the  rudiments  of  three*  other  stamens  exist 
opposite  the  three  lower  perianth  divisions,  and 
of  these  the  two  lateral  ones  help  to  make  the 
spreading  lip,  while  the  lower  stamen  strengthens 
the  column.  Fig.  25  represents  the  plan  of  the 
Orchid  family  as  given  by  Darwin.  In  this 
figure,  A.,  1,  2,  3  are  the  outer  whorl  of  stamens 
opposite  the  sepals.  A,  1  is  the  sterile  stamen 
in  the  Lady's  Slipper.  A,  2  and  3  are  com- 
bined with  the  lip  or  labellum;  a,  1,  2,  3  repre- 
sent the  inner  whorl  of  stamens  opposite  the 
corolla.  Of  these  a  1  and  2  are  fertile  in  Cypri- 
pedium,  and  a  3,  according  to  Darwin,  cannot 
always  be  traced,  but  when  it  is  present  forms 
the  front  of  the  column. 

1  On  the  various  contrivances  by  which  Orchids  are  fertilized 
by  Insects,  by  Charles  Darwin.  D.  Appleton,  N.  Y.,  1877.  Pages 
234-238. 


176 


LATER    SPRING    FLOWERS. 


The  style  is  terminated  by  a  moist  and  rough- 
ened stigma  which  shows  plainly  by  its  three 
lobes  that  it  is  composed  of  three  carpels. 

The  ovary  is  one-celled,  with  three  placentae  on 
the  walls.  There  are  innumerable  seeds,  so  fine 


Labellum. 
FIG.  25.  —  Cross  section  of  an  Orchid.     (Darwin.) 

and  small  that  they  resemble  sawdust.  When 
we  consider  the  greediness  of  flower-gatherers, 
we  ought  to  be  grateful  that  a  single  flower  is 
capable  of  producing  so  many  descendants,  as 
the  flower  is  entirely  dependent  on  its  seed  for 
reproduction. 


LATER    SPRING   FLOWERS.  177 

We  have  thus  fifteen  organs.  Three  sepals, 
three  petals,  six  stamens,  in  two  circles,  and 
three  carpels,  each  circle  alternating  with  the 
last ;  but  the  succession  and  arrangement  are 
made  exceedingly  obscure  by  changes  caused  by 
the  cohesion  of  the  parts  and  the  suppression  of 
some  of  the  organs.  If  we  compare  this  dia- 
gram with  that  of  the  Tulip  (Fig.  1),  we  shall 
see  that  the  fundamental  arrangement  is  the 
same,  and  botanists  believe  that  the  change  has 
been  brought  about  in  the  course  of  ages  by 
successive  modifications  of  a  simple  ancestral 
form. 

The  fertilization  of  this  flower  is  very  inter- 
esting. We  will  quote  the  account  from  Dr. 
Gray :  — 

"  Unlike  other  Orchids,  there  are  two  stamens : 
the  pollen  is  powdery,  or  between  powdery  and 
pulpy,  and  not  very  different  from  that  of  ordi- 
nary flowers.  As  it  lies  on  the  open  anther  in  a 
broad  patch,  it  somehow  gets  a  film  like  a  thin  coat 
of  sticky  varnish.  The  stigma  is  large,  flat,  and 
somewhat  trowel-shaped,  the  face  turned  forwards 
and  downwards  :  it  is  supported  on  a  stout  style, 


178  LATER    SPRING    FLOWERS. 

to  which  the  anthers  have  grown  fast,  one  on 
each  side.  This  apparatus  is  placed  just  within 
the  upper  part  of  the  sac  or  slipper  (rather  like  a 
moccasin  than  a  slipper),  which  gives  the  name 
to  the  flower.  There  are  three  openings  into 
the  slipper ;  a  large  round  one  in  front,  and  the 
edges  of  this  are  turned  in  after  the  fashion  of 
one  sort  of  mouse-trap ;  two  small  ones  far  back, 
one  on  either  side,  directly  under  each  anther. 
Flies  and  the  like  enter  by  the  large  front  open- 
ing, and  find  a  little  nectar  apparently  bedewing 
the  long  hairs  that  grow  from  the  bottom  of  the 
slipper,  especially  well  back  under  the  overhang- 
ing stigma.  The  mouse-trap  arrangement  ren- 
ders it  difficult  for  the  fly  to  get  out  by  the  way 
it  came  in.  As  it  pushes  on  under  the  stigma  it 
sees  light  on  either  side  beyond,  and  in  escaping 
by  one  or  other  of  these  small  openings  it  can- 
not fail  to  get  a  dab  of  pollen  upon  its  head, 
as  it  brushes  against  the  film  with  which  the 
surface  is  varnished.  Flying  to  the  next  blos- 
som and  entering  as  before,  as  the  insect  makes 
its  way  onward,  it  can  hardly  fail  to  rub 
the  pollen-covered  top  of  its  head  against  the 


LATER    SPRFNG    FLOWERS.  179 

large  stigma  which  forms  the  roof  of  the  pas- 

' '  i 
sage. 

The  Lady's  Slipper  is  by  no  means  a  typical 
representative  of  the  Orchis  family.  Darwin 
says :  "  An  enormous  amount  of  extinction  must 
have  swept  away  a  multitude  of  immediate 
forms,  and  has  left  this  single  genus,  now 
widely  distributed,  as  a  record  of  a  former  and 
more  simple  state  of  the  great  Orchidean 
order."  2 

If  we  can  obtain  an  Orchis,  or  some  nearly 
related  genus,  to  compare  with  the  Cypripedium, 
we  shall  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  family.  Orchis 
spectdbilis  is  to  be  found  at  the  same  season  as 
the  stemless  Lady's  Slipper,  but  it  is  not  nearly 
so  common  a  flower.  Foreign  Orchids  that  will 
answer  quite  as  well,  can  be  obtained  at  many 
greenhouses,  but  they  are  expensive.  If  no 
specimen  can  be  procured,  a  little  time  at  least 
should  be  spent  in  pointing  out  the  more  usual 
family  characteristics. 

1  How  Plants  Behave.    By  Asa  Gray.     Ivison,  Blakeman,  Tay- 
lor &Co.,  1872.    Page  31. 

2  Fertilization  of  Orchids,  p.  226. 


180  LATER    SPRING   FLOWERS. 

All  Orchids,  with  the  exception  of  the  genus 
Cypripedium,  have  a  single  fertile  anther.  This 
occupies  the  position  of  the  sterile  stamen  in 
Lady's  Slipper  (Fig.  25,  A,  i).  The  other  five 
stamens  exist  only  as  rudiments.  This  fertile 
stamen  has  two  cells  which  are  widely  sepa- 
rated, and  might  easily  be  mistaken  for  two 
separate  stamens.  Each  cell  contains  a  pollen- 
mass  (pollinium)  attached  to  a  stalk  (caudicle) 
with  a  sticky  disk  at  the  end.  These  sticky 
disks  are  so  placed  that  an  insect  entering  to  get 
nectar  will  strike  them  and  draw  them  out  of 
these  resting-places.  This  may  be  easily  seen 
by  experimenting  with  a  pencil,  or  other  sharp- 
pointed  instrument. 

Below  is  the  stigma,  which,  in  the  case  of 
the  Orchis,  consists  of  two  lateral,  sticky  sur- 
faces. The  third  lobe  of  the  stigma  is  modified 
into  a  peculiar  organ,  known  as  the  rostellum, 
which  takes  different  shapes  in  different  species, 
and  is  marked  r  in  Fig.  25.  The  viscid  disks 
before  mentioned  are  enclosed  in  this  rostellum, 
which  makes  a  sort  of  lip  that  depresses  at  a 
touch,  exposing  the  two  sticky  balls  of  matter. 


LATER    SPRING   FLOWERS.  181 

If  an  insect,  probing  for  nectar,  comes  in  contact 
with  one  of  these  disks,  the  viscid  matter  ad- 
heres to  its  head,  and  in  a  few  moments  sets 
hard,  like  cement.  The  insect  carries  these  pol- 
len-masses on  its  head  to  another  flower. 

Here  it  is  brought  against  the  sticky  stigma, 
which  pulls  off  some  of  the  pollen-grains,  which 
are  fastened  together  by  elastic  threads. 

The  manner  in  which  this  is  accomplished  has 
not,  apparently,  been  fully  studied  in  Orchis 
spectabilis.  The  account  of  the  British  species, 
Orchis  mascula,  will  be  found  beautifully  com- 
plete in  Darwin's  work,  just  cited.  He  describes 
the  wonderful  downward  movement  of  the  pol- 
len-masses, by  which  they  are  brought  into  posi- 
tion to  touch  the  stigma  of  the  next  flower 
visited.1  Dr.  Gray  implies  that  the  same  action 
takes  place  in  Orchis  spectdbilis,  but  in  a  few 
that  I  have  examined  the  movement  of  the  pol- 
len-inasses  was  in  the  wrong  direction.  This 
would  be  an  excellent  field  for  investigation  in 
localities  where  such  researches  are  possible. 

Let  us  sum  up  the  differences  between  Cypri- 

1  Reader  in  Botany,  X,  "  Fertilization  of  Orchids." 


182  LATER    SPRING    FLOWERS. 

pedium  and  other  Orchids :  it  has  two  fertile 
anthers,  belonging  to  the  outer  circle  of  stamens, 
instead  of  one  belonging  to  the  inner  circle  ;  the 
pollen  is  loose  and  powdery,  instead  of  being 
united  into  masses,  and  no  part  of  its  stigma  is 
developed  into  a  separate  organ  (rostellum). 

^ESTIVATION. 

The  cestivation  of  a  flower-bud  is  the  manner 
in  which  the  parts  are  arranged.  We  have 
already  studied  the  vernation  of  a  leaf-bud, 
which  is  the  disposition  of  the  leaves  in  the 
bud.1  The  same  terms  are  employed  for  the 
flower.  A  slight  review  of  the  various  modes 
that  we  have  observed  may  be  taken. 

We  represent  the  aestivation  of  a  flower  by 
means  of  diagrams.  We  can  study  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  flower-leaves  by  making  a  cross 
section  of  the  bud.  This  is  better  than  remov- 
ing the  parts  one  by  one,  as  we  did  in  the 
Tulip,  for  it  shows  us  the  relation  of  the  sta- 
mens and  the  pistil  to  the  corolla.  A  diagram, 
as  we  have  seen,  is  a  ground  plan  of  the  flower, 

1  Outlines,  Vol.  I,  p.  92. 


LATER    SPRING    FLOWERS.  183 

and  it  should  exhibit  the  arrangement  of  every 
part. 

In  the  the  calyx  of  the  Fuchsia  we  have  an 
example  of  valvate  aestivation  ;  the  parts  meet 
edge  to  edge,  without  overlapping.  The  stami- 
nate  flowers  of  Begonia  have  a  valvate  perianth. 
The  petals  of  our  common  Clematis  have  the 
edges  turned  inward  (induplicate),  and  those  of 
the  Norway  Maple  turn  outward  (reduplicate). 
These  are  varieties  of  valvate  aestivation. 

Sometimes  the  parts  do  not  touch  each  other 
in  the  bud  at  all,  and  then  they  are  open,  as  in 
Shepherd's  Purse. 

The  corolla  of  Fuchsia  exhibits  a  mode  where 
the  petals  overlap,  each  petal  having  one  edge 
within  and  one  edge  without.  This  is  convolute, 
and  the  House-Geranium  has  a  similar  aestivation 

The  commonest  mode  of  arrangement  is  im- 
bricated, with  one  or  more  of  the  petals  wholly 
within,  and  one  wholly  without.  We  have  had 
numerous  examples  of  this. 

The  usual  rule  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
parts  of  a  flower  is  that  succeeding  members 
arise  in  the  intervals  of  former  ones.  The 


184  LATER    SPRING    FLOWERS. 

circles  of  the  flower  usually  alternate,  as  we 
saw  in  the  Tulip.  Normally,  also,  the  carpels, 
or  cells  of  the  pistil,  alternate  with  the  inner 
row  of  stamens.  The  plan  of  the  Tulip,  there- 
fore, is  a  typical  one.  There  are  a  great  many 
exceptions  to  this  rule,  caused  by  the  abortion  of 
members,  or  of  whole  circles  of  organs,  and  the 
consequent  displacements  of  the  other  parts.1  A 
very  striking  example  of  such  changes  is  given 
in  the  study  of  the  Lady's  Slipper  in  this 
chapter. 

Grays  Lessons,  276-280. 

1  There  are  cases  where  many  botanists  think  that  the  parts 
are  formed  opposite  former  members,  and  are  not  changed  by  the 
union  or  suppression  of  members.  The  following  passage  is 
instructive  in  this  connection.  "  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  normal  alternation  of  the  parts  of  the  flower  is  only  a  fact  of 
experience,  which  loses  its  validity  as  a  general  rule  as  soon  as  a 
number  of  opposing  facts  are  known."  —  Goebel's  Outlines,  p.  419. 


IX. 

COMMON  WEEDS. 

SHEPHEKD'S  PURSE  (Capsetta  Bursa-pastoris).1 

THIS  weed  is  very  common,  by  fields  and  road- 
sides, so  that  it  is  easily  obtained.  The  flowers 
are  small,  but  most  of  the  characters  can  be 
made  out  with  a  hand  lens.  We  can  almost 
always  find  pods  and  flowers  on  the  same  plant, 
and  if  the  ovary  is  too  small  to  see  the  structure, 
the  pod  will  help  us  to  understand  what  it  must 
have  been. 

The  plant  has  a  tap-root,  which  is  very  tough 
and  somewhat  woody  (Fig.  26,  i).  The  leaves 
are  radical  from  a  very  short  underground  stem, 
and  also  alternate  on  the  flowering  stems.  All 
the  leaves  are  pinnatifid,  either  lobed,  toothed, 
or  cut ;  the  stem-leaves  are  clasping,  with  auri- 
cles at  the  base. 

The  flowers  are  in  terminal  racemes  (Fig.  26,  i) 

1  Appendix,  p.  334. 

185 


186  COMMON   WEEDS. 

which  elongate  greatly  as  the  season  goes  on. 
They  have  four  white  petals,  arranged  in  the 
form  of  a  Greek  cross,  and  six  stamen's  in  two 
rows,  the  outer  row  of  two  short  stamens, 
and  the  inner  row  of  four  long  ones.  These 
characters  distinguish  the  whole  family,  which 
takes  its  name,  Cruciferce,  cross-bearing,  from 
the  shape  of  the  corolla. 

The  pod  is  flattened  and  triangular,  and  has  a 
thin  membranaceous  division  stretched  across 
from  the  two  placentae.  In  an  old  pod  we  can 
pull  away  one  of  the  valves  from  the  partition 
and  leave  the  ovules  on  the  placentae,  as  in  Fig. 
26,  3.  We  can  see  the  wall  with  both  valves 
fallen  off  and  the  stalks  of  the  ovules  left  in 
Fig.  26,  4.  This  is  really  a  false  partition, 
which  grows  out  from  the  carpels  and  connects 
their  margins.  We  have,  therefore,  a  two-celled 
pod,  with  parietal  placentation  (Fig.  26,  4).  This 
kind  of  pod  is  peculiar  to  the  Cress  family.  It 
is  technically  termed  silide  in  the  Shepherd's 
Purse ;  in  the  Mustard,  where  the  pod  is  long 
and  narrow,  it  is  called  a  silique.  The  Garden 
Stock  offers  a  good  example  of  a  silique,  and  is 


FIG.  26. —  Shepherd's  Purse.  1.  Whole  plant.  2.  Flower  with  two  petals  and 
two  stamens  removed.  3.  Pod,  one  valve  detached.  4.  Portion  of 
pod  after  the  seeds  have  dropped  off.  5.  Diagram. 


COMMON   WEEDS.  187 

so  large  that  it  can  be  more  easily  studied. 
Perhaps,  on  this  account,  the  teacher  may  prefer 
to  use  it  as  the  flower  for  class  study,  instead  of 
the  Shepherd's  Purse. 

There  is  another  kind  of  pod  in  the  Cress 
family,  a  pod  which  separates  across  into  one- 
seeded  joints.  This  is  called  a  lament,  and  the 
pod  of  the  Radish  is  an  example. 

We  can  recognize  the  Cress  family  by  the 
four  petals,  two  short  and  four  long  (tetrady- 
namous)  stamens,  and  the  two-celled  pod,  with 
the  ovules  on  the  walls. 

COMMON  CHICKWEED  (Stellaria  media)* 

This  little  flower  is  familiar  to  every  one.  It 
is  small  and  will  require  rather  careful  handling. 
The  leaves  are  opposite  and  simple,  the  upper 
sessile,  the  lower  on  hairy  petioles.  Through  a 
lens  a  single  hairy  line  may  be  seen  running  all 
along  the  stem. 

The  arrangement  of  the  flower  is  determinate. 
A  flower  always  terminates  the  stem  and  from 
the  axils  of  the  nearest  leaves  spring  branches 

1  Appendix,  p.  335. 


188  COMMON   WEEDS. 

with  a  flower  on  the  end  of  each  branch.  Then 
these  branches  may  again  branch,  and  so  on. 
This,  as  we  have  seen  in  the  Houstonia,  is  a 
cyme. 

The  flower  is  small.  The  pupil  may  think  that 
it  has  ten  petals,  because  they  are  so  very  deeply 
parted,  but  a  little  careful  examination  will  show 
them  that  the  divisions  are  joined  at  the  base. 

There  are  usually  but  three  stamens,  but  the 
number  varies  from  three  to  ten. 

If  the  ovary  is  too  small  to  examine  satisfac- 
torily, let  the  pupils  look  for  pods.  The  oldest 
pods  will  be  found  at  the  lowest  fork  of  the 
flowering  part  of  the  plant.  This  was  the  first 
flower  developed,  and  terminated  the  stem.  Very 
likely  this  pod  has  already  split  into  six  valves, 
and  nothing  is  left  in  the  middle  but  a  tiny  con- 
vex placenta,  where  the  seeds  were  fastened.  It 
looks  like  a  green  calyx,  for  the  valves  of  the 
pod  are  like  leaves.  They  show  very  plainly, 
what  we  have  before  stated,  that  the  carpel  is  a 
modified  leaf.  We  can  split  a  pod  that  is  not  quite 
so  old  by  pressing  it,  and  see  the  seeds  within, 
piled  on  a  central  placenta,  not  united  to  the 


COMMON   WEEDS.  189 

walls.  This  is  called  a  free  central  placenta.  It 
is  characteristic  of  the  Pink  family.  When  we 
find  a  flower  which  is  polypetalous  and  has  a 
placenta  of  this  kind  we  can  probably  place  it 
among  the  Pinks;  when  it  is  gamopetalous  it 
belongs  to  the  Primrose  family. 

We  may  compare  the  pod  of  this  Chickweed 
with  that  of  the  Mouse-Ear  Chickweed  (Ceras- 
tium  vulgatum),  which  is  also  a  very  common 
weed.  The  pod  of  the  latter  opens  by  five 
teeth,  but  does  not  split  to  the  base.  We  find 
the  little  golden  seeds  in  some  of  the  Chickweed 
pods.  They  are  curved  (campylotropous),  so  that 
the  scar  where  the  seed  was  attached  to  the 
placenta  (hilum)  is  brought  very  near  to  the 
opening  through  which  the  ovule  was  fertilized 
(micropyle). 

The  nectar-glands  are  at  the  bases  of  the 
outer  filaments.  The  stigmas  expand  while 
the  stamens  are  dehiscing,  and,  as  they  are 
below  the  anthers,  self-fertilization  can  easily 
take  place. 

According  to  Miiller,  "  cross-fertilization  and 
self-fertilization,  in  the  event  of  insect  visits, 


190  COMMON   WEEDS. 

are  both  equally  likely ;  in  the  absence  of  in- 
sects the  stigmas  regularly  fertilize  themselves 
by  coming  in  contact  with  the  anthers.  This  self- 
fertilization  is  undoubtedly  efficient,  for  Siellaria 
media  produces  abundant  seed  in  winter  when 
no  insects  are  about,  and  in  long-continued 
rainy  weather." 1 

We  have  no  difficulty  in  placing  this  plant  in 
its  proper  family,  the  Pink  family  (Caryopliyl- 
lacece).  It  is  a  dicotyledon,  polypetalous,  and 
the  corolla  and  stamens  are  inserted  under  the 
ovary.  It  has  the  same  number  of  sepals  and 
petals,  separate  styles,  and  a  free  central  pla- 
centa. The  flower  we  have  had  that  most 
nearly  agrees  with  these  characters  is  the  Clay- 
tonia,  but  that  had  two  sepals  only,  and  belongs 
to  the  Portulacacece,  which  comes  next  to  the 
Pinks  in  the  Manual. 

GROUND-IVY  ;  GILL  (Nepeta  Glechoma).2 

This  is  a  common  weed  in  fields  and  waste 
places.  It  is  a  good  example  of  its  family  (La- 

1  The  Fertilization  of  Flowers,  p.  136. 

2  Appendix,  p.  336. 


COMMON    WEEDS.  191 

biatce),  although  there  are  other  flowers  which 
are  larger  and  more  easy  to  examine. 

The  stem  is  a  very  characteristic  one.  It  is 
square,  hairy,  and  jointed,  with  thick  brushes  of 
hairs  at  the  joints.  The  leaves  are  opposite, 
without  stipules,  but  with  this  brush  of  hairs 
connecting  the  bases. 

The  flowers  are  in  cymose  clusters  in  the 
axils,  and  their  stalks  are  so  short  that  the  clus- 
ters are  quite  close  to  the  stem. 

The  flowers  are  small,  about  half  an  inch 
long.  The  calyx  is  gamosepalous  and  free. 
The  corolla  is  two-lipped  (bilabiate).,  a  form  we 
have  not  met  with  before.  We  can  trace  the 
number  five  in  it,  however,  for  the  upper  lip  is 
two-lobed  and  the  lower  lip  three-lobed.  In  fact, 
the  upper  lip  is  formed  of  two  united  petals,  and 
the  lower  lip  of  three.  The  stamens  are  four, 
in  two  lengths  (didynamous),  and  the  anthers 
are  very  peculiar.  If  we  look  at  a  flower  in 
which  the  anthers  have  dehisced,  we  shall  find 
them  forming  two  little  crosses  (Fig.  27,4,6,7). 
The  cells  of  the  anthers  diverge,  and  as  each  pair 
is  close  together  (approximate)  a  cross  is  formed. 


192  COMMON   WEEDS. 

Some  of  the  plants  of  Ground-Ivy  have  smaller 
flowers,  which  are  more  highly  fertile,  but  have 
sterile,  club-shaped  anthers.1 

The  ovary  is  different  from  any  that  we  have 
studied.  It  has  four  deep  lobes  (Fig.  27,  s), 
which  split  apart  when  the  fruit  is  ripe  into  four 
little  separate  nutlets.  But  we  say  that  the 
ovary  is  syncarpous,  for  there  is  only  one  style, 
rising  from  the  centre  surrounded  by  the  four 
lobes. 

The  flower  is  plainly  adapted  for  cross-fertili- 
zation. At  the  base  of  the  flower,  just  under 
the  ovary,  is  a  nectar-gland  (Fig.  27,  8, &).  This 
makes  the  ovary  rather  puzzling  at  first  sight, 
for  it  looks  as  if  there  were  five  lobes.  As 

1  Mu'ller  explains  this  abortion  of  the  stamens  by  supposing 
that  the  plants  varied  and  produced  some  less  conspicuous 
flowers.  As  these  less  attractive  flowers  would  be  visited  last  by 
insects,  and  as  the  stamens  of  the  last- visited  plants  would  be 
useless,  there  being  no  pistillate  plants  in  bloom  to  be  cross- 
fertilized,  the  stamens  would  tend  to  disappear  "  because  the 
loss  of  useless  organs  is  manifestly  advantageous  for  every 
organism."— The  Fertilization  of  Flowers,  p.  484. 

Darwin,  on  the  other  hand,  supposes  that  some  individuals 
produced  more  seed,  and  consequently  less  and  less  pollen,  until 
their  stamens  finally  disappeared.  See  Forms  of  Flowers, 
p.  304. 


FIG.  27.  — Ground-Ivy.  1.  Branch  with  flowers.  2.  Base  of  stem.  3.  Flower. 
4.  Section  of  same  flower.  5.  Section  of  flower  in  earlier  stage. 
6.  Upper  lip,  seen  from  below,  the  lower  lip  cut  away.  7.  Stamen 
after  dehiscence.  8.  Ovary:  a,  nutlets;  6, nectar-gland.  9.  Fruit, 
with  section  of  persistent  calyx,  two  ovules  fertilized.  10.  Diagram. 


COMMON    WEEDS.  193 

the  markings  on  the  flower  very  plainly  show, 
the  path  to  this  nectar-gland  leads  along  the 
under  lip.  This  brings  the  head  and  back  of 
the  insect  against  the  four  anthers  upon  the 
upper  lip,  and  he  is  dusted  with  pollen.  But  in 
the  flowers  where  the  anthers  are  discharging 
the  style  is  not  lengthened  or  expanded  (Fig. 
27,  s),  and  the  pollen  must  therefore  be  left  on 
the  style  of  an  older  flower,  subsequently  visited 
by  the  insect  (Fig.  27,  4).  We  have  studied  this 
before  in  the  Tropseolum  and  House-Geranium. 
The  flower  is  proterandrous  ;  that  is,  the  stamens 
develop  first. 

We  have  little  difficulty  in  placing  this  plant 
on  our  schedule.  It  is  a  dicotyledon,  gamopeta- 
lous,  with  square  stems,  opposite  leaves,  and  an 
irregular  flower  with  a  deeply  four-lobed  ovary, 
splitting  in  fruit  into  four  one-seeded  nutlets. 
This  combination  of  characters  belongs  only  to 
the  Labiates. 

This  family  has  many  flowers,  which  are  won- 
derfully adapted  for  cross-fertilization.  One  of 
the  prettiest  of  them  is  Salvia.  Our  garden 
Salvia  (8.  splendens)  is  a  fall  plant,  but  I  have 


194  COMMON   WEEDS. 

often  found  it  flowering  in  the  spring  in  green- 
houses. 

The  tendency  to  divergence  of  the  anther  cells 
that  we  have  noticed  in  the  Nepeta  is  carried 
much  further  in  the  Salvia.  The  connective  is 
long  and  thread-like,  carrying  one  of  the  anther 
cells  upward  under  the  upper  lip,  while  the 
lower  cell  is  suppressed  altogether,  leaving  the 
lower  end  of  the  connective  pointing  downwards. 
This  arrangement  acts  like  a  lever.  When  a  bee 
visits  the  flower  he  pushes  the  lower  end  of  the 
connective  backwards  in  entering,  and  this  brings 
the  upper  end  downward,  and  causes  the  pollen- 
filled  cell  of  the  anther  to  strike  his  back.  The 
action  of  the  insect  may  be  easily  imitated  with 
a  pencil,  and  always  delights  the  pupils. 

There  are  several  families  which  resemble  the 
Labiates  very  closely,  and  if  examples  of  them 
can  be  obtained  they  may  be  compared  with  the 
Nepeta,  or  some  other  member  of  this  family. 

The  Borage  family  contains  a  good  many 
common  weeds,  the  Stickseed  (JEchinospermimi 
Lappula),  Hound's  Tongue  (Cynoglossum  offici- 
nale\  and  the  disagreeable  Beggar's  Lice  (Echi- 


COMMON    WEEDS  195 

nospermum  Virginicum) .  These  are  summer 
flowers.  They  have  prickly  and  barbed  nutlets 
which  catch  on  to  the  clothing  and  are  very 
troublesome.  The  Forget-me-not  and  Heliotrope 
are  garden  flowers  belonging  to  the  Borage  fam- 
ily, and  a  pretty  common  wild  flower  of  the 
West  and  South  is  the  Lungwort  (Mertensia). 

Comparing  any  of  these  flowers  with  the  one 
we  have  been  examining,  we  find  that  while  the 
nutlets  and  style  are  similar,  except  in  the  case 
of  Heliotrope  which  has  an  undivided  ovary,  the 
flowers  are  regular,  with  a  five-lobed  corolla,  and 
the  leaves  are  alternate. 

The  Vervain  family  ( Verbenacem)  has  ovaries 
which  split  when  ripe  into  four  one-seeded  nut- 
lets, but  the  ovary  is  not  four-lobed,  and  the 
style  is  terminal.  The  Vervains  do  not  blos- 
som until  late  in  the  summer,  but  cultivated 
Verbenas  can  be  obtained.  This  family  has  also 
flowers  with  one-celled  and  two-celled  ovaries, 
and  the  fruit  of  some  of  them  is  fleshy  and  does 
not  split.  The  leaves  are  opposite  and  the 
flowers  generally  irregular. 

There  is  another  family  with  two-lipped  flow- 


196  COMMON   WEEDS. 

ers,  closely  resembling  the  Labiates,  the  Fig- 
wort  family  (Scrophulariacecv).  We  will  take 
an  example  that  can,  however,  hardly  be  called 
a  common  weed,  if  we  regard  a  "weed"  as  a 
troublesome  and  superfluous  plant.1 

LOUSE  WORT  (Pedicularis  Canadensis).2 

This  plant  flowers  in  May  and  June,  and  is 
common  in  shady  copses  and  on  the  edges  of 
meadows. 

The  leaves  are  alternate,  simple,  and  pin- 
nately  parted,  with  the  divisions  crenate  and 
hairy. 

The  flowers  are  arranged  in  a  dense  head, 
which  gradually  elongates  to  a  spike.  They  are 
sessile  and  each  has  a  crenate  bract  at  the  base. 
Each  flower  is  irregular,  with  a  two-lipped 
brownish  yellow  or  purplish  corolla,  which  is 
inserted  under  the  ovary.  It  has  a  two-toothed, 
hooded,  curved,  upper  lip,  enclosing  the  stamens 
and  style.  The  lower  lip  is  spreading  and  three- 
lobed. 

The    stamens    are    four  in  number,  and  the 

1  Reader  in  Botany,  XI,  "  Weeds."      .    2  Appendix,  p.  338. 


COMMON   WEEDS.  197 

ovary  is  two-celled,  with  many  ovules  on  the 
axis,  that  is,  on  a  central  placenta. 

The  fruit  is  a  two-celled  capsule  with  many 
seeds.  There  is  an  interesting  account  by  Mr. 
Gentry,  of  the  fertilization  of  this  flower.1  The 
flower,  according  to  his  observations,  is  fertilized 
by  bumble-bees,  which  alight  first  on  the  spread- 
ing lower  lip,  thus  coming  in  contact  with  the 
stigma.  The  length  of  the  tube  of  the  corolla 
causes  the  bee  to  insert  not  only  its  proboscis,  but 
its  head  also,  which  forces  the  lips  of  the  corolla 
apart  and  causes  a  shower  of  pollen  from  the 
ripe  anthers  to  fall  on  the  bee's  head  and  back. 
When  the  insect  leaves  the  flower,  the  upper  lip 
springs  back  to  its  original  position  with  con- 
siderable force,  causing  another  shower  of  pol- 
len-grains, which,  falling  on  the  stigma,  may 
effect  self-fertilization.  "  This  operation  can  be 
performed  artificially,  by  taking  hold  of  the 
under  lip  with  the  left  thumb  and  forefinger, 
and  pulling  the  upper  lip  backward,  by  the 
right,  and  then  releasing  the  hold  of  the  latter ; 
the  upper  lip  springs  to  its  place,  spirting  the 

1  Nature,  Vol.  VIII,  p.  541. 


198  COMMON    WEEDS. 

pollen  through  the  aperture  upon  the  left  hand. 
From  the  above  it  is  to  be  seen  that  the  plant 
has  two  chances  of  being  fertilized  —  one,  by  its 
own  pollen,  and  the  other  by  that  of  another. 
Although  the  flower  seeds  abundantly,  yet  I  am 
disposed  to  think  that  it  is  mainly  through  the 
pollen  of  another  that  the  seeds  become  perfect." 
We  can  recognize  the  Figwort  family  (Scrophu- 
lariacece),  to  which  the  Pedicularis  belongs,  among 
the  group  of  orders  with  superior  ovary  and  ir- 
regular corolla,  by  the  two-celled  ovary,  with  the 
placentae  in  the  axis. 

MEADOW-PARSNIP  (Zizia  aurea).1 

Here  is  a  member  of  a  very  widely  diffused 
family,  the  Umbelliferce.  The  first  glance  at 
our  specimen  shows  the  origin  of  the  name, 
which  signifies  umbel-bearing.  The  flowers  are 
arranged  in  a  compound  umbel  (Fig.  28,  i),  and 
this  is  the  case  with  almost  every  member  of  the 
family. 

This  yellow  Zizia  is  a  common  flower,  gener- 
ally growing  in  damp  meadows  and  along 

1  Appendix,  p.  339. 


FIG.  28.  —  Meadow-Parsnip.     1.  Branch  in  flower.  2.  Leaf.     3.  Single  flower. 

4.   Petals,  inner  and   side  view.      5.  Stamen   before   dehiscence. 

6.  Stamen  after  dehiecence.    7.  Pistil.  8.  Section  of  fruit.    9.  Dia- 
gram. 


f        (jr     i  «M 

UNIVERSH 


COMMON   WEEDS.  199 

streams.  In  former  editions  of  the  Manual  it 
was  known  as  Thaspium  aureum. 

The  roots  are  fleshy  and  stringy,  from  an 
underground  rootstock.  The  leaves  are  both 
radical  and  cauline,  alternate  and  pinnately 
compound,  dilated  and  clasping  at  the  base,  the 
lower  on  long  petioles,  the  upper  stem-leaves 
sessile  (Fig.  28,  i,  2). 

The  flower  is  small,  the  calyx  teeth  nearly 
obsolete,  the  corolla  yellow,  inserted  with  the 
stamens  on  an  epigynous  disk.  The  aestivation 
is  valvate,  with  the  point  bent  inwards  (inflexed), 
a  very  common  arrangement  in  this  family 
(Fig.  28,  4). 

The  pistil  is  very  peculiar  (Fig.  28,  7,  s).  It 
is  of  two  carpels,  united,  but  splitting  in  fruit 
into  two  halves.  It  has  ten  ribs,  which  in  cross 
section  (Fig.  28,  s)  show  an  oil-tube  in  each  in- 
terval and  a  fibro-vascular  bundle  in  the  rib  it- 
self that  is  easily  mistaken  for  an  oil-tube.  The 
seeds  are  flat  on  the  inner  face,  convex  on  the 
outer,  and  do  not  separate  from  the  carpel. 

There  are  certain  terms  employed  to  describe 
the  fruit  of  Umbelliferce,  which  may  be  found  in 


200  COMMON    WEEDS. 

Gray's  Manual,  but  which  seem  hardly  worth 
while  to  give  in  such  a  simple  course  as  ours. 
The  family  is  difficult  because  the  flowers  are 
extremely  alike  in  the  various  genera  and  most 
of  the  characters  are  taken  from  the  fruit.  The 
plants  of  this  family  are  classified  largely  by  the 
arrangement  of  the  oil-tubes.  This  can  only  be 
made  out  with  a  good  simple  microscope,  and  is 
quite  difficult  for  an  inexperienced  beginner. 

The  characters  of  the  Parsley  family  ( Umbel- 
liferce)  are  flowers  in  umbels,  a  polypetalous 
corolla  on  top  of  the  ovary,  five  petals,  five 
stamens,  and  two  carpels,  with  ribs  or  wings 
and  oil-tubes  in  the  intervals,  splitting  in  fruit. 

The  family  has  been  treated  in  a  monograph 
entitled  Revision  of  North  American  Umbel li- 
ferae,  and  diagrams  of  the  fruit  of  all  the  genera 
may  be  found  there.1 

FIELD  SORREL  (Rumex  acetosella).2 

We  often  see  the  meadows  in  summer  covered 
with  patches  of  red,  which  seem  to  be  more  bril- 

1  Revision  of  North  American  Umbelliferae.  By  Coulter  and 
Rose,  Crawfordville,  Indiana.  2  Appendix,  p.  340. 


COMMON    WEEDS.  201 

liant  in  some  places  than  in  others.  The  color 
is  caused  by  our  little  Field-Sorrel,  which,  begin- 
ning its  term  of  flowering  with  a  dull  green 
color,  becomes  red  as  the  season  advances,  espe- 
cially in  the  fertile  flowers,  where  the  akene 
becomes  quite  brilliant.  We  shall  find  that  the 
brightest  portions  contain  the  fertile  panicles, 
which  grow  together  in  little  patches,  while  the 
staminate  flowers  make  a  duller  bit  of  color. 

Let  us  examine  the  plants.  Pulling  up  one 
by  the  roots  we  shall  very  likely  find  that  it 
is  connected  with  little  new  offsets,  as  in  Fig. 
29,  i.  The  stem  is  smooth,  the  leaves  alternate 
on  the  stem,  and  the  lower  leaves  halberd-shaped. 
The  children  know  well  the  pleasant  acid  taste  of 
the  leaves,  and  like  it  as  well  as  the  sheep  do. 
We  used  to  call  it  Gentlemen's  Sorrel,  while  the 
common  yellow  Oxalis  (0.  strictd)  was  Ladies' 
Sorrel.  The  stipules  form  a  sort  of  scaly  sheath, 
a  character  which  belongs  to  the  whole  family. 

The  small  flowers  are  dioecious  in  terminal 
panicles,  without  bracts.  The  perianth  is  of 
six  separate  divisions.  In  the  staminate  flowers 
(Fig.  29,  i,  2,  3)  these  divisions  are  all  spreading, 


202  COMMON    WEEDS. 

but  in  the  pistillate  flowers  (Fig.  29,  4,  5)  the 
three  inner  perianth  leaves  turn  inwards  and 
converge  over  the  akene.  In  fruit  they  open 
and  are  called  valves.  They  look  exactly  like 
the  walls  of  the  ovary,  while  the  akene  resem- 
bles the  seed  (Fig.  29,  5,  6). 

The  anthers  are  two-celled  and  the  cells 
diverge  after  discharging  (Fig.  29,  3).  They 
diverge  from  above,  as  the  cells  are  fixed  at  the 
base.  The  stamens  are  much  longer  than  the 
perianth  (exserted),  the  pollen  is  fine  and  abun- 
dant, and  the  stigmas  are  hairy,  which  characters 
indicate  that  the  plant  is  wind-fertilized. 

The  akene  is  crowned  by  a  hairy  tufted 
stigma,  which  is  early  deciduous.  The  akene  is 
three-angled  and  contains  a  single  erect  seed 
(Fig.  29,  e). 

Many  of  these  characters  are  difficult  to  see 
on  account  of  the  small  size  of  the  flower,  and 
the  teacher  should  never  require  a  description  of 
anything  which  the  pupils  are  unable  to  see  for 
themselves. 

One  would  not  naturally  place  this  flower  in 
the  apetalous  division.  It  seems  to  have  two 


FIG.  29.  —  Sorrel.  1.  Whole  plant,  staminate.  2.  Staminate  flower  before  dehis- 
cence.  3.  Single  starninate  flower,  seen  from  above.  4.  Cluster 
of  pistillate  flowers.  5.  Single  pistillate  flower.  6.  Akene. 


204  COMMON    WEEDS. 

ENGLISH  PLANTAIN  (Plantago  lanceolata).1 

This  Plantain  is  chosen  because  it  blossoms 
earlier  than  our  native  plant,  and  can  be  found 
in  season  for  our  present  study. 

It  is  an  inconspicuous  weed,  with  spikes  of 
greenish  flowers  and  rosettes  of  radical  leaves. 
The  leaves  are  lanceolate,  giving  the  name  to  the 
species,  entire,  hairy,  and  very  strongly  ribbed. 
The  fibro-vascular  bundles  are  so  strong  that 
they  can  be  pulled  out  in  long  fibres,  and  when 
twisted  together  will  stand  a  good  deal  of  strain. 

The  spike  is  very  dense.  At  first  it  is  round, 
but  later  elongates  into  a  spike,  with  scarious 
bracts  at  the  base  of  each  flower. 

The  flowers  are  small,  regular,  and  complete. 
The  sepals  are  transparent,  with  a  strong  green 
midrib ;  the  corolla  is  salver-shaped  and  persistent, 
and  encloses  the  ovary  in  fruit.  The  corolla, 
also,  is  dry  and  membranaceous. 

There  are  four  stamens,  which  hang  out  on 
long,  slender  filaments.  The  pollen  is  light  and 
abundant,  showing  us  that  the  plant  is  wind- 

1  Appendix,  p.  341. 


COMMON   WEEDS.  205 

fertilized.1  The  stigmas  are,  therefore,  as  we 
should  expect,  long,  filiform,  and  hairy.  They 
mature  before  the  stamens  (proterogynous).  We 
have  had  an  example  of  this  adaptation  before 
in  the  Horsechestnut. 

The  capsule  opens  crosswise  by  a  sort  of  lid. 
The  family  is  known  by  its  regular  flowers  in 
spikes,  with  the  parts  in  fours,  and  its  dry,  mem- 
branaceous  floral  envelopes. 

INFLORESCENCE. 

Where  do  flower-buds  come  on  the  stem? 

This  question  would  be  a  good  one  to  give 
out  to  be  answered  in  a  following  lesson  from 
observation  of  plants.  We  shall  find  that 
flower-buds  come  in  the  same  places  as  leaf- 
buds,  and  in  their  earliest  stages  cannot  be 
distinguished  from  them.  They  are  therefore 
either  terminal  or  axillary,  and  we  must  keep 
this  point  continually  before  us  in  considering 
the  various  forms  of  flower-cluster  that  have 
received  specific  names. 

1  An  interesting  discussion  of  the  fertilization  of  the  Plan- 
tains will  be  found  in  the  Fertilization  of  Flowers,  pp.  503-508. 


206  COMMON    WEEDS. 

The  simplest  form  of  inflorescence,  or  flower- 
arrangement,  is  the  development  of  single  flowers 
in  the  axils  of  leaves,  or  at  the  end  of  the  stem. 
We  have  called  such  flowers  solitary. 

When  they  end  the  stem,  as  in  Tulip, 
Anemone,  etc.,  there  is  no  possibility  of  the 
flower-stalk  continuing  to  grow ;  it  is  terminated. 
This  is  therefore  called  determinate  or  definite 
inflorescence.  But  when  the  flowers  are  in  the 
axils  of  leaves,  new  terminal  leaf-buds  may  be 
developed  and  the  axis  may  be  indefinitely 
prolonged.  We  cannot  determine  where  the 
branch  will  stop,  and  this  is  therefore  called 
indeterminate  or  indefinite  inflorescence. 

Let  us  now  study  the  plants  we  have  had  with 
reference  to  the  position  of  their  flowers. 

When  we  begin  to  collect  the  flowers  into 
clusters,  we  see  immediately  that  it  is  difficult 
to  draw  a  line  between  those  with  solitary 
flowers  and  those  in  clusters,  for  in  the  latter 
the  flowers  often  spring  singly  from  the  axils 
of  the  upper  leaves.  The  leaves  simply  arise 
nearer  together,  and  are  modified.  They  are 
then  called  bracts,  but  the  line  dividing  a  leaf 


COMMON    WEEDS.  207 

that  is  called  a  leaf,  and  a  leaf  that  is  called 
a  bract,  is  no  more  definite  than  any  of  the 
rest  of  our  distinctions.  The  Lilac  is  an  ex- 
cellent example  of  the  gradual  modification  of 
leaves.  Each  flower-chfster  springs  from  the 
axil  of  a  leaf  and  the  leaves  grow  smaller  as  we 
approach  the  top  (Part  I,  p.  68). 

Let  us  see  how  our  axillary  flowers  may  be 
grouped,  that  is,  let  us  examine  some  of  the 
forms  of  indefinite  inflorescence. 

In  the  Barberry,  Wild  Cherry,  Hyacinth,  and 
Shepherd's  Purse  we  have  examples  of  a  raceme. 
The  flowers  are  arranged  on  the  sides  of  the 
stem.  In  the  first  two  examples  the  flowers 
spring  from  the  axils  of  modified  leaves,  or 
bracts,  but  in  the  Hyacinth  the  bracts  have 
disappeared  or  are  very  minute.  The  Hyacinth 
has  very  short  flower-stalks,  or  pedicels.  If 
these  were  entirely  absent  the  cluster  would  be 
a  spike.  We  have  seen  a  spike  in  the  Jack-in- 
the-Pulpit  (Ariscema] ,  where  the  flowers  are  ses- 
sile. The  common  stalk  on  which  all  the  flowers 
are  arranged  is  a  peduncle. 

The  Shepherd's  Purse  shows  very  clearly  what 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


208  COMMON   WEEDS. 

» 

indefinite  inflorescence  means,  for  the  cluster  is  at 
first  very  short  and  goes  on  elongating  through 
the  whole  season,  till  it  becomes  several  inches  in 
length.  We  cannot  tell  how  long  it  will  become. 

The  Arisaema  has  a  particular  name  for  its 
inflorescence.  It  is  called  a  spadix,  which  may 
be  defined  as  a  fleshy  spike.  The  bract  which 
surrounds  it  is  called  a  spathe.  Another  form 
of  spike,  a  long  cluster  with  scaly  bracts,  we 
have  seen  in  the  Willow  and  Poplar,  the  catkin 
or  ament.  The  flowers  are  always  of  a  single 
sex  in  the  true  catkin. 

We  have  had  no  example  of  a  corymb;  that 
is,  a  flat-topped  cluster,  where  the  lower  pedicels 
are  so  much  longer  than  the  upper  that  all  the 
flowers  are  brought  up  to  the  same  level.  The 
clusters  of  many  Asters  are  in  this  form.  We 
shall  see  an  example  of  it  in  the  Mountain- 
Laurel  (Kalmid). 

An  umbel  is  a  cluster  in  which  all  the  pedicels 
start  from  the  same  point,  like  the  rays  of  an 
umbrella.  If  we  imagine  the  pedicels  absent  in 
an  umbel,  we  shall  have  a  close  cluster  which  is 
called  a  head.  We  have  a  head  of  flowers  in 


COMMON    WEEDS.  209 

the  Red  Clover.  There  is  often  a  circle  of  bracts 
around  a  head,  and  this  is  called  an  involucre,  as 
we  shall  see  in  the  Dandelion.  There  is  an 
involucre  around  the  cluster  of  the  House- Gera- 
nium also. 

When  the  pedicels  branch,  we  may  have  com- 
pound clusters  of  all  these  kinds  of  inflorescence. 
We  have  seen  a  compound  umbel  in  the  Meadow- 
Parsnip,  and  this  is  typical  of  the  whole  family 
to  which  it  belongs,  which  is  therefore  called 
Umbelliferce.  A  panicle  is  a  long,  loosely  branch- 
ing compound  flower-cluster,  like  those  of  many 
grasses,  such  as  our  common  Kentucky  Blue- 
grass  (Fig.  36,  B,  i). 

Thus  far,  we  have  treated  only  indeterminate 
clusters,  where  the  flowers  arise  on  the  sides  of 
the  stem.  Let  us  imagine  a  solitary  flower  termi- 
nating the  stem,  like  the  Tulip,  to  be  accompanied 
by  two  younger  flowers  springing  from  opposite 
sides  of  the  stem  below  it,  from  the  axils  of 
bracts.  Then  we  have  a  mode  of  inflorescence 
which  is  called  a  cyme.  When  the  leaves  are 
alternate,  the  lower  flowers  arise  only  on  one 
side  of  the  stem,  as  in  Buttercup  (Fig.  21,  i). 


210  COMMON    WEEDS. 

It  is  plain  that  in  determinate  or  cymose  inflores- 
cence, the  oldest  flowers  are  at  the  top,  and  the 
order  of  blooming  is  a  descenduiy  one.  In  the 
indeterminate,  on  the  contrary,  the  order  of  blos- 
soming is  ascending,  from  below  upward. 

Some  flower-arrangements  are  very  puzzling, 
as,  for  instance,  in  Forge t-me-Nots  and  Heliotrope, 
where  the  clusters  look  like  racemes,  but  are 
really  cymes;  but  any  student  who  has  studied 
the  growth  of  a  Horsechestnut  tree  (Part  I,  p.  61) 
will  have  no  difficulty  in  understanding  them. 
The  axillary  flower  grows  more  rapidly,  and  has 
a  longer  pedicel  thari  the  terminal  flower,  and 
the  continued  repetition  of  this  makes  the  clus- 
ter look  like  a  raceme,  with  the  younger  flowers 
at  the  top. 

We  see  mixed  inflorescence  in  the  Lilac  and 
Horsechestnut,  where  there  are  both  axillary 
and  terminal  flower-clusters.  The  clusters  of 
Lilac  and  Horsechestnut  are  called  by  the  name 
of  thyrsus.  The  same  mixed  character  is  pres- 
ent in  the  Norway  Maple,  also,  where  the  primary 
branching  is  racemose,  while  the  secondary 
branches  are  cymes. 


COMMON    WEEDS.  211 

The  collecting  of  flowers  into  clusters  makes 
them  more  conspicuous  and  facilitates  the  col- 
lecting of  nectar  and  pollen  by  insects.  It  is 
therefore  an  assistance  to  cross-fertilization  and 
an  advantage  to  the  plant.  Consider  the  thick 
clusters  of  Locust,  Lilac  (Syringa),  Cherry, 
Mountain-Laurel  (Kalmia),  the  heads  of  Clover 
or  the  umbels  of  Meadow-Parsnip  (Zizia),  and 
think  how  inconspicuous  the  flowers  would  be  if 
they  were  solitary,  and  how  much  longer  it 
would  take  the  insects  to  visit  them.  The  whole 
family  of  Composites  have  small  flowers,  which 
are  made  noticeable  by  being  collected  into 
heads,  and  in  many  cases  certain  parts  of  the 
cluster  are  specialized  for  the  purpose  of  attrac- 
tion, and  are  otherwise  useless,  as  in  the  neutral 
flowers  of  the  Rudbeckia.  The  same  thing  occurs 
in  the  Hydrangea  and  Hobble-Bush  ( Viburnum 
lantanoldes\  where  some  of  the  outer  flowers  are 
neutral  and  exist  purely  for  the  sake  of  calling 
attention  with  their  showy  petals  to  other  incon- 
spicuous but  fertile  flowers.  In  the  Cornel  the 
same  purpose  is  answered  by  the  involucre. 

Gray's  Lessons,  197-227. 


X. 
EARLY   COMPOSITES. 

DANDELION  (Taraxacum  afficinale).1 

THE  Dandelion  has  a  very  thick  tap-root, 
crowned  by  a  short  underground  stem.  The 
leaves  are  coarsely  and  irregularly  toothed,  with 
the  teeth  projecting  backwards  (runcinate),  and 
they  lie  on  the  ground  in  the  form  of  a  rosette 
(Fig.  30,  i). 

The  flowers  are  in  close  heads,  on  hollow, 
smooth  scapes.  Making  a  vertical  section  of 
one  of  the  heads  (Fig.  30,  2),  we  see  that  i-t  con- 
sists of  a  collection  of  separate  flowers  on  a  flat 
receptacle,  surrounded  by  several  rows  of  bracts, 
the  outer  rows  loosely  imbricated  and  short,  the 
inner  row  long,  narrow,  and  erect.  Each  flower 
has  an  open,  strap-shaped  (ligulate)  corolla,  united 
below  into  a  tube,  which  is  shorter  than  the  open, 
spreading  border. 

1  Appendix,  p.  343. 
212 


EARLY   COMPOSITES.  213 

Examining  a  single  flower  (Fig.  30,  3),  we 
find  that  the  ovary  is  inferior  and  is  an  akene. 
Above  it  is  a  short  stalk  (beak],  on  the  summit 
of  which  is  a  crown  of  soft  bristles.  This  repre- 
sents the  calyx,  and  is  called  the  pappus.  The 
corolla  is  strap-shaped,  and  shows  by  the  five 
teeth  at  the  apex  that  it  consists  of  five  united 
petals.  The  stamens  surround  the  style  and  are 
joined  by  their  anthers  (syngenesious).  The 
style  is  two-lobed,  and  is  stigmatic  on  the  inner 
face  of  the  branches. 

The  style  develops  after  the  stamens,  and  the 
arrangement  for  cross-fertilization  is  very  per- 
fect. The  united  anthers  form  a  cylinder  into 
which  the  pollen  discharges,  and  the  anther- 
tube  is  filled  with  pollen  before  the  flower  opens. 
During  this  period,  the  style  remains  undeveloped 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  anther-tube.  When  the 
stamens  have  discharged,  the  style  begins  to 
grow,  and  the  hairs  that  cover  the  outer  tips  of 
its  closed  branches  sweep  the  pollen  out  of  the 
cylinder,  and  carry  it  up  away  from  the  stam- 
inal  tube,  till  it  is  freely  exposed  to  the  visits 
of  insects,  collecting  pollen  or  seeking  nectar. 


214  EARLY   COMPOSITES. 

Later,  the  style-branches  open,  bend  back,  and 
stand  in  the  same  position  in  relation  to  the  insects 
as  does  the  pollen  in  the  younger  flowers.  As 
the  insect  visits  many  heads  in  rapid  succession, 
cross-fertilization  is  almost  certain  to  take  place. 

In  default  of  insect  visits,  for  the  Dandelion 
blossoms  before  and  after  the  season  of  its  vis- 
itors, self-fertilization  is  possible.  The  style- 
branches  continue,  to  bend  backwards  till  they 
make  a  spiral,  arid  the  stigmatic  surface  within 
is  rubbed  against  the  pollen  on  the  outer  surface 
of  the  style. 

In  fruit,  the  beak  of  the  ovary  lengthens, 
carrying  up  the  pappus  with  it  (Fig.  30,  G).  We 
can  see  the  use  which  this  serves  by  making  an 
artificial  breeze  from  our  lips  and  seeing  how  the 
fruits  fly  in  every  direction.  It  accomplishes 
the  purpose  of  scattering  the  seeds.  The  akene 
is  roughened  with  little  barbs  which  hold  the 
fruit  where  it  falls  and  help  it  to  work  into 
the  ground.  When  we  consider  how  perfect  are 
the  arrangements  of  the  Dandelion  for  fertiliza- 
tion and  dissemination,  we  shall  not  wonder 
that  the  plant  is  a  weed. 


FIG.  30.  — Dandelion.  1.  Whole  plant.  2.  Section  of  head.  3.  Single  flower. 
4.  Head  after  flowering.  5.  Head  in  fruit.  6.  Akene.  7.  Recep- 
tacle after  the  akenes  have  blown  away. 


Or-  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


EARLY   COMPOSITES.  215 

The  involucre  is  very  useful  to  the  Dandelion. 
It  acts  the  same  part  to  the  flower-head  that  a 
calyx  does  to  a  solitary  flower.  At  first  it  pro- 
tects the  bud,  as  the  inner  row  of  bracts  is 
folded  tightly  over  the  flowers  (Fig.  30,  i).  As 
the  blossom  matures,  the  bracts  are  reflexed,  so 
that  nothing  can  be  seen  from  above  but  the 
yellow  rays  (Fig.  30,  2).  Later,  when  the  corolla 
drops  off,  and  the  seeds  begin  to  ripen,  the 
involucre  closes  again  around  the  fruits  (Fig. 
30,  4),  until  they  are  fully  ripe,  when  it  turns 
completely  backwards,  and  the  head  of  winged 
akenes  is  exposed  to  the  winds  (Fig.  30,  5).  Fi- 
nally, only  the  naked  receptacle  is  left  with  the 
withered  involucre  below  (Fig.  30>  7).  The  books 
say  that  the  involucre  closes  over  the  florets  in 
rain,  but  I  have  often  noticed  the  little  yellow 
suns  shining  undismayed  in  the  midst  of  a  heavy 
downpour.1 

The  Dandelion  belongs  to  the  great  family, 
Composite,  distinguished  by  having  flowers 
collected  in  heads  surrounded  by  an  involucre, 
united  anthers,  and  inferior,  one-seeded  ovary. 

1  Reader  in  Botany,  XII,  "  The  Dandelion." 


216  EARLY   COMPOSITES. 

This  family  is  divided  into  two  series,  the  first 
having  tubular  flowers  (Tubuliflorce),  the  second 
with  ligulate  or  ray-flowers  only  (Liguliflorce). 
The  Dandelion  belongs  to  the  second  series.  Our 
next  flower  will  lead  us  to  a  study  of  the  first 
division. 

Ox-EYE  DAISY  (Chrysanthemum  Leucan- 
themum).1 

The  love  of  this  plant  has  been  acquired  by 
our  generation.  Our  mothers  and  grandmothers 
saw  nothing  to  admire  in  it.  It  was  called 
"  White  weed "  and  regarded  as  a  pest ;  its 
flowers  were  never  made  into  bunches  and  worn 
at  the  belt  or  in  the  bosom.  Is  the  change  due 
to  the  fact  that  most  of  the  earlier  generation 
were  farmers,  and  depended  on  their  grass  for 
a  part  of  their  sustenance  ? 

However  this  may  be,  the  Daisy,  as  we  now 
call  it,  is  universally  loved,  and  will  be  studied 
with  pleasure. 

The  stem  of  the  plant  is  erect  and  simple,  or 
nearly  so,  with  clasping,  cut-toothed  leaves. 

1  Appendix,  p.  344. 


EARLY    COMPOSITES.  217 

The  heads  are  large  and  showy,  solitary,  and 
terminal.  The  scales  of  the  involucre  are  thin 
and  scarious. 

The  receptacle  is  nearly  flat,  and  its  centre 
densely  covered  with  small  tubular  flowers.  Let 
us  place  one  under  the  lens  (Fig.  31). 
The  akenes  are  ribbed  and  have  no 
pappus.  The  corolla  is  yellow,  with 
a  contraction  in  the  middle,  as  if  it 
had  been  pinched.  It  has  five  teeth, 
showing  that  it  consists  of  five  united 
petals.  The  stamens  are  like  those 

1  .  Fro.  31.— Tubu- 

of  the  Dandelion,  united  by  the  an-  iar  flower  of 
thers.  The  style  is  two-cleft  and 
tufted  at  the  ends  of  the  lobes.  As  the  style 
grows,  these  tufts  of  hairs  sweep  the  pollen 
from  the  anther-tube.  The  pollen,  entangled  in 
the  hairs,  is  heaped  above  the  margin,  and,  if 
not  removed  by  insects,  may  dust  the  stigmatic 
surface  when  the  style-branches  open.  Self- 
fertilization  is  therefore  possible.  The  different 
tribes  of  Composite  are  classified  largely  by  the 
character  of  the  branches  of  the  style,  and,  there- 
fore, it  is  an  important  point  for  us  to  notice. 


218  EARLY    COMPOSITES. 

All  the  various  forms  have  a  direct  connection 
with  the  manner  in  which  fertilization  is  accom- 
plished. 

Outside  of  these  disk-flowers,  as  they  are 
called,  are  the  ray-flowers.  These  are  like  the 
flowers  of  the  Dandelion,  strap-shaped  or  ligu- 
late.  In  the  Ox-Eye  Daisy,  however,  the  rays 
are  pistillate  only  ;  in  the  Dandelion  the  flowers 
are  all  perfect.  These  marginal  florets  have 
lost  their  stamens  and  devoted  more  strength  to 
the  showy  rays.  They  perform  the  service  of 
making  the  plant  conspicuous. 

PURPLE  CONE-FLOWER  (Rudbeckia  liirta).1 

A  good  flower  to  compare  with  the  one  we 
have  been  studying,  or  to  substitute  for  it,  is 
Rudbeckia  liirta,  a  plant  belonging  to  the  West, 
but  now  becoming  very  common  in  the  East 
also,  by  being  planted  with  Western  Clover  seed. 
It  blossoms  later  than  the  Ox-Eye  Daisy. 

This  flower  is  very  showy.  The  head  has  a 
conical  disk  of  dark  purple  flowers,  and  orange 
rays,  whence  the  common  name,  Black-Eyed 

1  Appendix,  p.  345. 


EARLY   COMPOSITES.  21Q 

Susan.  The  name  hirta  signifies  rough,  and 
comes  from  the  rough-hairiness  of  the  plant. 

The  involucre  of  the  Rudbeckia  is  leafy  and 
spreading,  instead  of  thin  and  papery  like  the 
Chrysanthemum,  and  the  receptacle  has  scaly 
bracts  (chaff)  among  the  flowers.  The  receptacle 
of  the  Dandelion  and  Ox-Eye  Daisy  are  naked, 
that  is,  without  bracts. 

The  ray-flowers  have  neither  stamens  or  pistil. 
They  are  neutral,  consisting  of  nothing  but  showy 
corollas,  and  answer  no  other  purpose  than  to 
make  the  head  conspicuous.  The  style  and 
stigma  are  undeveloped,  and  the  ovary  never 
ripens.  We  have  here  a  complete  division  of 
labor  in  the  flower-head. 

Like  the  Chrysanthemum  there  is  no  pappus. 
In  a  previous  chapter  we  stated  that  when  one 
of  the  circles  of  the  perianth  is  wanting,  it  is 
generally  the  corolla  (p.  71).  In  the  Composites 
it  is  the  calyx  that  is  absent.  We  can  learn  this 
by  analogy.  The  corollas  are  much  alike  in  all 
the  members  of  the  family,  but  the  pappus,  or 
calyx,  varies  greatly.  Sometimes  it  is  a  short 
crown,  sometimes  a  tuft  of  bristles,  and  some- 


220  EARLY   COMPOSITES. 

times  it  disappears  altogether,  as  in  the  plant  we 
are  considering. 

ROBIN'S  PLANTAIN    (Erigeron  bellidifoUus).1 

This  plant  reminds  us  of  the  Asters,  and, 
indeed,  belongs  to  the  Aster  tribe. 

It  is  a  pretty  plant.  The  tall,  flowering  stem 
springs  from  a  rosette  of  spatulate  radical  leaves, 
and  bears  a  few  nodding  heads  with  many  nar- 
row, violet  rays,  and  a  yellow  disk. 

The  involucre  has  narrow  scales  in  a  single 
row,  and  the  flowers  are  on  a  flat,  naked  recep- 
tacle. The  pappus  is  of  soft,  white,  capillary 
hairs.  The  style  is  flat  and  triangular  at  the 
apex  and  is  flattened  inside  and  out,  a  character 
belonging  to  the  whole  Aster  tribe.  The  Golden- 
Rods  and  true  Daisies  belong  also  to  this  tribe  of 
Composites. 

PLANTAIN-LEAVED    EVERLASTING    (Antennaria 
plantaginifolia)  ? 

In  all  the  preceding  plants,  the  heads  have 
consisted,  wholly  or  in  part,  of  flowers  with  a 

1  Appendix,  p.  346.  2  Ibid.  p.  348. 


EAKLY   COMPOSITES.  221 

strap-shaped  corolla.  In  the  common  little 
Everlasting  all  the  florets  are  tubular.  The 
heads  are  therefore  called  discoid,  all  the  flowers 
being  like  the  disk-flowers  in  radiate  heads. 

We  shall  soon  discover  that  the  plants  are  not 
all  alike  in  this  Everlasting ;  some  heads  are 
small  and  pointed ;  others  are  larger  and  flatter 
at  the  top.  The  former  are  a  purer  white  and 
the  styles  protrude ;  the  latter  have  exserted 
brownish  or  reddish  stamens.  The  plants  are, 
in  fact,  dioecious. 

Gathering  specimens  of  both  kinds  of  heads 
and  placing  them  under  a  lens,  we  find  many 
differences  between  them.  The  white,  papery 
scales  of  the  involucre  are  broad  and  obtuse  in 
the  heads  with  staminate  flowers,  and  narrow 
and  acute  in  the  pistillate  heads. 

The  staminate  flowers  have  a  pappus  thick- 
ened towards  the  top,  like  the  antennae  of  certain 
insects,  whence  comes  the  name  of  the  plant, 
Antennaria.  The  fertile  flowers  have  a  fine 
pappus  of  the  same  size  throughout,  and  the 
hairs  are  united  at  the  base  and  fall  in  a  ring. 

The  corolla  of  the  sterile  flower  is  spreading 


222  EAHLY    COMPOSITES. 

at  the  throat,  and  much  wider  than  the  corolla 
of  the  fertile  flower,  which  has  a  very  slender 
tube.  Perhaps  the  staminate  flowers  may  need 
a  wider  corolla,  in  order  that  the  pollen  may  be 
the  more  easily  removed.  No  doubt  all  the  dif- 
ferences have  some  significance,  but  the  plant  has 
not  been  carefully  studied. 

The  anthers  of  the  Antennaria  are  tailed  at 
the  base,  making  them  arrow-shaped.  The  pres- 
ence or  absence  of  tails  in  the  anthers  is  used  in 
classifying  the  various  tribes  of  Composites. 

One  other  difference  between  the  fertile  and 
sterile  flowers  is  easily  explained.  The  style  is 
long  and  two-cleft  in  the  fertile  flowers,  but  short 
and  nearly  simple  in  the  sterile  ones.  This  is 
because  the  style  and  stigma  are  useless  in  the 
staminate  flowers,  and  therefore  undeveloped. 

GOLDEN  RAGWORT  (Senecio  aureus).1 

This  common  plant  has  the  distinction  of 
belonging  to  the  largest  genus  known. 

It  is  a  tall,  showy  herb,  with  golden  corymbed 
heads.  Each  head  has  a  few  pistillate  rays.  The 

1  Appendix,  p.  349. 


EARLY   COMPOSITES.  223 

pappus  is  of  soft,  white,  capillary  bristles,  and 
plays  an  important  part  in  scattering  the  fruits. 

The  fertilization  takes  place  as  in  other  Com- 
posites, the  pollen  being  swept  out  of  the  anther- 
tube  by  the  hairy  tips  of  the  style-branches, 
which  in  this  case  are  capitate. 

We  need  never  mistake  the  family  to  which 
all  these  plants  belong,  because  it  is  distinguished 
by  such  obvious  characters.  The  corolla  is  of 
united  petals,  and  the  ovary  is  inferior,  so  that 
we  place  it  at  once,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
gamopetalous  division.  The  flowers  in  heads, 
surrounded  with  an  involucre,  the  united  anthers, 
and  the  one-celled  ovary,  with  a  single  erect 
ovule,  mark  the  Composite.  The  only  family 
with  which  it  could  be  confounded  is  the  Teasel 
family,  Dipsacece,  which  also  has  the  flowers  in 
heads,  surrounded  by  an  involucre.  In  this 
family,  however,  the  stamens  are  distinct  and 
the  seed  is  suspended.  The  Scabious  of  our 
gardens  is  the  only  plant  we  shall  be  likely  to 
meet  with  belonging  to  the  Teasels. 

We  will  sum  up  the  characters  that  must  be 
carefully  noted  in  the  analysis  of  a  Composite, 


224  EARLY   COMPOSITES. 

since  they  differ  from  any  family -which  we  have 
before  studied. 

We  must  note  the  grouping  of  the  florets  into 
variously  shaped  heads,  as  well  as  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  flower-heads  themselves.  The  tex- 
ture, shape,  and  color  of  the  involucral  scales 
must  be  described,  and  the  arrangement  of  these 
scales  in  the  bud. 

A  vertical  section  of  the  whole  head  must 
always  be  made,  and  the  kinds  of  flowers  in  the 
head  described,  whether  both  rays  and  disk- 
flowers  are  present,  or  whether  the  heads  are 
wholly  radiate  or  wholly  discoid.  In  some 
Composites  the  flowers  are  not  all  alike  in  the 
head,  even  when  all  are  tubular,  as  in  our  com- 
mon Tansy,  where  some  of  the  marginal  flowers 
are  pistillate  only,  and  have  an  oblique,  three- 
toothed  border. 

The  receptacle,  the  part  of  the  flower-stalk 
that  holds  the  whole  head,  must  be  carefully 
described.  We  must  notice  its  form,  surface, 
and  whether  it  has  chaff  among  the  flowers,  or 
is  naked. 

Coming   to    the   separate   flowers,   we    must 


EARLY   COMPOSITES.  225 

describe  the  pappus  and  the  shape  of  the  corolla, 
and  must  examine  both  ray-flowers  and  disk- 
flowers  in  making  our  descriptions.  The  anthers 
are  sometimes  appendaged,  having  tails  at  the 
base ;  sometimes  they  are  tailless.  They  are 
always  united  into  a  tube  and  dehisce  introrsely. 

The  ovary  is  always  an  akene,  variously  ribbed 
and  roughened.  The  style-branches  differ  greatly 
and  the  characters  derived  from  them  are  much 
used  in  classification.  The  stigmatic  surface  is 
always  on  the  inner  faces  of  the  style-branches. 

The  Composite  family  contains  more  species 
and  genera  than  any  other.  This  is  probably 
due  to  the  perfection  of  the  arrangements  for 
cross-fertilization  and  dissemination. 

It  is  an  advantage  to  the  flowers  to  be  col- 
lected into  heads,  because  it  renders  them  more 
conspicuous  and  enables  the  insects  to  visit  them 
more  quickly;  and  because,  also,  as  the  involu- 
cre plays  the  part  of  calyx  to  the  whole  head, 
the  separate  flowers  can  dispense  with  these  cov- 
erings, which  have  become  transformed  into 
various  forms  aiding  the  dissemination,  as  the 
pappus  in  the  Dandelion,  which  acts  as  a  wing, 


226  EARLY   COMPOSITES. 

and  the  hooks  in  our  common  Bur-Marigold, 
which  cling  to  the  fleece  of  animals,  and  cause 
the  fruit  to  be  transported  from  place  to  place. 

The  nectar  is  very  accessible,  and  the  flowers 
are  therefore  visited  by  a  great  variety  of  insects. 
The  flowers  are  proterandrous,  and  the  pollen  is 
swept  out  of  the  anther-tube  by  what  Miiller 
calls  the  sweeping  hairs  on  the  style.  When  the 
style-branches  open,  exposing  the  stigmatic  sur- 
face, they  are  apt  to  be  fertilized  with  pollen 
from  the  younger  flowers. 

In  many  genera  self-fertilization  is  possible, 
in  the  absence  of  insects,  by  the  gradual  recurv- 
ing of  the  branches  of  the  style  till  they  are 
brought  in  contact  with  the  pollen.1 

THE  SEED. 

The  formation  of  the  seed  completes  the  cycle 
of  the  life  of  the  plant.  We  planted  a  seed  and 
watched  it  grow  into  a  seedling;  we  studied  the 
development  of  root  and  stem  and  leaf,  and 
saw  the  plant  blossom.  We  learned  the  parts 
of  the  flower  and  observed  the  ovary  mature 

1  The  Fertilization  of  Flowers,  pp.  315-318. 


EARLY  COMPOSITES.  227 

into  the  fruit,  and  now,  within  the  fruit,  we 
come  again  to  the  seed,  from  which  will  spring 
a  new  individual  to  repeat  the  same  changes, 
and  produce,  in  its  turn,  new  descendants. 

A  review  of  what  we  learned  in  the  section 
on  Seedlings  will  be  interesting  and  profitable, 
and  we  can  add  to  the  points  which  we  then 
noted. 

The  seed  is  the  developed  ovule  and  much  of 
the  terminology  of  the  parts  is  the  same.  Ac- 
cording to  the  direction  of  the  ovules  or  seeds 
in  the  pod  they  are  called  erect,  or  horizontal, 
ascending,  or  pendulous,  and  these  terms  hardly 
need  more  explanation.  If  the  position  is  seen 
it  can  be  described  by  the  pupil. 

More  difficult  is  the  description  of  the  kind  of 
seed,  or  ovule,  according  to  the  manner  in  which 
it  develops.  Let  us  take  a  Bean  and  see  if  we 
can  make  its  structure  clear.  It  is  not  one  of 
the  simplest  form  of  ovules,  but  it  can  be  pro- 
cured at  any  time,  and  if  we  understand  its 
structure  thoroughly  it  will  be  easy  to  under- 
stand the  rest.  ' 

First,  let  us  take  an  unripe  Bean-pod  for  our 


228  EARLY   COMPOSITES. 

examination.  We  already  know  that  the  ovules, 
which  are  here  partly  developed  into  seeds,  are 
organs  which  generally  originate  at  the  margins 
of  the  carpel,  or  seed-leaf.  We  have,  in  the 
hean,  a  simple  carpel  bearing  a  row  of  ovules 
on  each  incurved  margin.  The  pod  may  split 
either  on  these  joined  margins  (ventral  suture) 
or  on  the  midrib  (dorsal  suture).  Let  us  split  it 
at  the  more  natural  place,  where  the  margins 
join,  and  examine  the  arrangement  of  the  seeds. 
Each  Bean  has  a  seed-stalk,  from  which  it 
separates  when  the  seed  is  ripe.  The  place 
where  this  stalk  separates  leaves  a  scar  which  is 
in  the  middle  of  a  ripe  Bean.  This  is  called  the 
hilum.  The  end  of  the  attached  stalk  on  the 
upper  side  of  the  seed  is  the  place  where 
the  seed-coats  originate  (clialaza),  and  here  if 
we  cut  the  seed  open  we  shall  find  the  plantlet 
or  embryo.  Just  opposite  the  point  where  the 
embryo  joins  the  seed-stalk  we  should  expect  to 
find  the  opening  where  the  pollen-tube  de- 
scended to  fertilize  the  ovule.  It  would  be 
there  if  the  seed  were  perfectly  "straight,  but  one 
side  of  the  ovule  in  the  Bean  is  more  developed 


EARLY   COMPOSITES.  229 

than  the  other,  and  the  orifice  has  been  bent 
around,  until  it  is  brought  nearly  up  to  the 
point  where  the  seed-stalk  joins  the  placenta. 
In  the  ripe  Bean  there  is  a  tiny  raised  dot 
close  to  the  scar  left  by  the  seed-stalk.  This 
closed  orifice  is  the  micropyle  of  the  seed. 

An  ovule,  or  seed,  in  which  the  seed-stalk  is 
adnate  to  the  ovule  for  half  its  length,  so  that 

.  the  hilum,  or  scar,  comes  in  the  centre  of  the 
seed,  as  in  the  Bean,  is  called  amphitropous.  It 
is  not  a  very  common  kind  of  ovule.  A  far 
more  common  kind  is  one  where  the  adnate  seed- 
stalk,  which  is  called  the  rhapJie,  runs  along  the 
whole  length  of  the  seed,  making  it  completely 

4  inverted  on  its  stalk,  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
real  base  of  the  seed  where  the  coats  originate  is 
apparently  at  the  top,  and  the  micropyle  at  the 
base,  close  to  the  scar.  This  is  an  anatropous 
ovule,  and  may  be  seen  in  the  Ranunculacece,  the 
Violacece,  Rosacece,  and  many  other  families. 

Two  other  kinds  of  ovule  that  have  received 
special  names  are  not  united  with  the  seed-stalk, 
or  rhaphe.  The  simplest  form  is  the  straight 
ovule  (orthotropous),  which  is  erect,  with  the 


230  EARLY   COMPOSITES. 

opening  at  the  apex,  as  in  the  Sorrel,  which  we 
have  just  studied.  The  seeds  of  Chickweed  are 
campylotropous .  Here  the  ovule  starts  straight, 
but  one  side  grows  faster  than  the  other,  so  that 
the  micropyle  is  brought  close  to  the  hilum. 

The  difference  between  this  form  and  the  seed 
of  the  Bean  is  not  very  great,  for,  as  we  have 
seen,  one  side  of  the  ovule  is  more  developed 
than  the  other  in  the  Bean  also ;  but,  in  this 
case,  the  rhaphe  is  partly  adnate  to  the  seed  and 
part  of  the  curvature  is  caused  by  the  inversion 
of  the  ovule  on  the  stalk,  while  in  the  true  cam- 
pylotropous seed  the  whole  curvature  is  caused 
by  the  unequal  growth  of  the  ovule. 

These  various  types  of  seeds  have  many  inter- 
mediate forms,  difficult  to  classify.  They  can- 
not be  understood,  in  any  case,  by  a  mere  de- 
scription, but  a  study  of  the  development  of  an 
ovule  to  a  seed  will  make  the  matter  plain. 
Illustrations  will  clear  up  the  subject  also,  and 
these  may  be  found  in  the  text-book.1 

Making  a  section  of  our  Bean,  we  find  that  it 
consists  of  an  embryo  covered  with  two  coats, 

1  Gray's  Lessons,  pp.  110-112. 


EARLY   COMPOSITES.  231 

an  outer  and  inner  coat.  The  outer  coat  has 
been  called  the  testa,  from  a  word  which  means 
shell,  because  it  is  often  very  hard.  The  inner 
coat  is  generally  thin  and  delicate.  Not  every 
seed  has  two  coats. 

The  whole  body  of  the  seed  inside  the  coats  is 
called  the  kernel.  We  have  already  learned  that 
some  seeds  have  all  the  food  for  the  seedling 
packed  away  inside  the  plantlet  (endosperm], 
and  that  some  have  outside  material  from  which 
to  draw  their  first  nourishment  (perisperm). 
We  called  the  former  seeds  exalbuminous  and  the 
latter  albuminous,  but  the  names  are  not  very 
suitable,  because  the  food  is  just  the  same  in 
both  cases,  only  in  one  case  the  plantlet  has 
taken  it  up  before  the  seed  is  ripe,  and  in  the 
other  case  it  absorbs  it  after  germination. 

We  have  already  learned  the  parts  of  the 
embryo.  One  little  point  we  may  add  to  the 
description  of  our  Bean  plantlet :  the  caulicle 
is  placed  against  the  edges  of  the  seed-leaves 
(accumbent).  This  is  used  as  a  character  in  the 
classification  of  the  Cress  family  (Cruciferce), 
where  the  caulicle  is  disposed  in  two  ways,  the 


232  EARLY   COMPOSITES. 

one  we  have  just  noticed,  and  another  where  it 
is  placed  against  the  back  of  one  of  the  cotyle- 
dons (incumbent}. 

The  outer  coat  of  the  seed  is  often  developed 
into  appendages,  which  are  useful  in  aiding  the 
seeds  to  scatter  more  widely.  The  seed  of  Milk- 
weed has  a  tuft  of  soft  hairs,  and  so  has  that  of 
the  Cotton  plant.  Sometimes  the  outer  coat  of 
the  seed  is  roughened  to  catch  the  ground.  We 
must  not  confound  these  cases  with  such  fruits 
as  the  akenes  of  the  Dandelion,  where  the  hairs 
belonging  to  the  calyx,  and  the  roughness  of 
the  ovary,  perform  the  same  office  for  the  seed. 

We  have  seen  seeds  also  where  the  rhaphe  was 
developed  so  as  to  be  very  conspicuous,  as  in  the 
Bloodroot  and  Corydalis.  An  appendage  sur- 
rounding the  whole  seed,  is  called  an  aril.  The 
aril  best  known  to  us  is  that  of  the  Nutmeg 
seed,  which  is  mace.  These  outgrowths  are  often 
attractive  to  birds  and  help  dissemination  by 
causing  the  seed  to  be  eaten. 

A  chapter  on  the  subject  of  dissemination  will 
be  found  in  the  accompanying  Reader.1 

1  A  Reader  in  Botany,  XIII,  "  How  Seeds  Travel." 


XI. 
EARLY   SUMMER   FLOWERS. 

THERE  are  many  flowers  in  early  summer  be- 
longing to  the  Pulse  family  (Leguminosce).  In 
cultivation  we  have  the  Wistaria  ( W.  Sinensis], 
the  Locust  (Robinia),  Laburnum  (Cytisus^ 
Clover  (Trifolium),  Bean  (Vicia),  Pea  (Pisum), 
and  many  others,  while  the  Lupine  (Lupinus  Pe- 
rennis),  Ground-Nut  (Apios  Tuberosa),  Vetch 
( Vicia  sativa),  and,  on  the  coast,  the  Beach-Pea 
(LatJiyrus  maritimus),  are  growing  wild.  We 
will  take  the  Locust,  as  one  of  the  simplest  of 
these  flowers,  and  examine  its  structure. 

LOCUST  (Robinia  Pseudacacia).1 

The  Locust  is  a  common  tree  in  cultivation, 
and  is  often  found  escaped  from  gardens  and 
thoroughly  naturalized  in  New  England.  It  is 

1  Appendix,  p.  350. 


234  EARLY   SUMMER    FLOWERS. 

a  native  of  the  Middle  States.  It  is  a  large  tree 
with  furrowed,  ash-colored  bark.  The  leaves 
are  pinnately  compound,  smooth,  and  thin,  and 
of  a  delicate  pale  green  color,  without  stipules, 
or  with  stipules  converted  into  spines.  There 
is  a  very  interesting  peculiarity  about  the  buds 
of  this  tree.  They  are  hidden  beneath  the  leaf- 
stalks, which  fit  over  them  like  extinguishers, 
and  are  only  revealed  to  view  when  the  leaves 
fall  and  the  tree  is  in  its  winter  dress,  with  the 
buds  fully  formed  for  the  next  spring. 

The  white  and  fragrant  flowers  are  in  long, 
hanging  racemes  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves. 

The  flowers  are  complete,  with  a  five-lobed 
calyx  and  a  corolla  of  five  petals.  These  petals 
are  very  dissimilar  and  have  received  special 
names.  The  large  conspicuous  outer  petal,  which 
enfolds  the  others  in  the  bud,  is  called  the 
standard  (vexillum),  Fig.  32,  3,  a.  The  lateral 
petals  are  the  wings  (alae),  6,  and  the  two  lower 
petals  unite  to  form  the  keel  (carina),  c,  so  named 
from  its  resemblance  to  the  prow  of  a  boat. 
The  whole  corolla  is  called  papilionaceous,  from 
a  fancied  resemblance  to  a  butterfly.  The  wings 


EARLY    SUMMER    FLOWERS.  235 

of  the  corolla  are  perfectly  free  in  the  Locust. 
We  shall  see  that  in  other  members  of  the 
family  they  are  united  in  various  degrees. 

The  stamens  are  united  by  their  filaments 
into  a  tube,  excepting  the  upper  stamen,  which 
is  free.  Within  them  lies  the  nectar,  approached 
only  through  this  split  tube  of  filaments,  at  the 
base  of  the  standard.  When  the  stamens  are 
united  into  two  sets  they  are  termed  diadelphous 
(in  two  brotherhoods),  although  here  one  of  the 
sets  consists  of  a  single  free  stamen. 

The  pistil  is  a  long,  linear  pod,  consisting  of 
one  carpel.  The  style  is  curved  and  is  enclosed 
within  the  staminal  tube  in  the  keel  of  the 
corolla.  When  an  insect  alights  on  the  corolla 
to  suck  the  nectar,  he  finds  die  keel  and  wings  a 
convenient  standing-place.  They  are  depressed 
by  the  weight  of  his  body,  but  the  stamens  and 
style,  being  stiff,  do  not  bend ;  they  emerge  from 
the  keel,  and  are  rubbed  against  the  under  side 
of  the  body  of  the  insect.  When  the  bee  flies 
away,  the  elasticity  of  the  petals  brings  them 
back  to  their  former  place,  enclosing  the  stamens 
and  style,  and  the  action  is  repeated  until  the 


236  EARLY   SUMMER    FLOWERS. 

petals  lose  their  power  of  returning  to  their 
original  position.  As  the  style  is  longer  than 
the  stamens,  cross-fertilization  is  likely  to  take 
place. 

This  is  the  simplest  arrangement  for  fertiliza- 
tion in  the  family.  The  wings  are  free,  and  the 
stamens  emerge  when  the  keel  is  depressed  by 
the  weight  of  the  insect's  body.  Other  examples 
are  Wistaria,  Laburnum,  and  Clover. 

The  Laburnum  (Cytisus  Laburnum)  has  mon- 
adelphous  stamens,  and  the  nectar  is  entirely  en- 
closed in  a  gland,  so  that  the  insect  must  pierce 
this  gland  with  its  proboscis  in  order  to  obtain 
the  nectar.  According  to  Miiller,1  it  is  so  rich 
in  honey  that  a  column  of  liquid  will  ascend  a 
fine  glass  tube  inserted  in  the  gland.  Miiller 
says,  also,  that  the  hairs  around  the  stigma  pro- 
tect it  from  contact  with  insects  in  the  younger 
flowers.  In  older  flowers  the  hairs  have  with- 
ered and  the  stigma  is  freely  exposed,  while  the 
style  at  the  same  time  bends  more  towards  the 
centre  of  the  flower  and  away  from  the  stamens. 
This  ensures  cross-fertilization. 

1  Fertilization  of  Flowers,  p.  193. 


EARLY    SUMMER    FLOWERS.  237 

The  Laburnum  has  a  depression  in  each  wing 
near  the  base,  which  fits  into  a  corresponding 
depression  in  the  keel,  and  causes  the  parts  to 
return  more  quickly  and  firmly  to  their  places 
after  an  insect  visit. 

The  Red  Clover  (Trifolium  pratense)1  has  all 
the  petals  united  into  a  tube,  which  is  long 
enough  to  exclude  short-lipped  visitors  from  the 
nectar,  so  that  it  is  principally  fertilized  by 
bumble-bees.  But  hive-bees  often  bite  through 
the  corolla  and  thus  feloniously  reach  the 
nectar.2 

The  parts  of  the  flower  are  kept  in  place,  as 
in  the  Laburnum,  by  the  lobes  on  the  wings, 
which  embrace  the  column  of  stamens  and  fit 
beneath  the  standard,  bringing  the  parts  back 
to  their  original  position  when  disturbed. 

The  stamens  are  diadelphous,  and  the  tenth 
free  stamen  is  turned  to  one  side,  so  that  it  is 
not  in  the  way  of  the  proboscis  of  the  insect 
thrust  down  to  reach  the  nectar.  The  style  is 

1  Appendix,  p.  352. 

2  Cross  and  Self -Fertilization,  pp.  425-435.    Reader  in  Botany, 
XIV,  "  Habits  of  Insects." 


238  EARLY   SUMMER    FLOWERS. 

longer  than  the  anthers,  and  thus  self-fertilization 
is  rendered  more  difficult. 

The  White  Clover  has  a  shorter  tube  and  is 
visited  by  all  kinds  of  bees.  Darwin  covered 
patches  of  these  plants  with  a  net  and  found 
that  they  seeded  very  scantily.1 

All  these  flowers  have  essential  organs  which 
simply  emerge  from  the  keel  when  it  is  depressed 
and  return  to  it  when  released.  Other  papilion- 
aceous flowers  have  a  much  more  complicated 
mechanism,  as  we  shall  see. 

COMMON  PEA  (Pisum  sativum).2 

We  have  already  studied  the  germination  of 
this  plant,  and  know  something  of  its  habits.3 
The  leaves  are  alternate  and  compound,  ending 
in  a  branched  tendril.  We  can  find  leaves 
where  there  are  more  leaflets  and  fewer  branches 
to  the  tendril,  and  sometimes  we  find  a  leaflet 
directly  opposite  a  tendril,  showing  that  the 
tendrils  are  modified  leaflets.  The  large  stip- 

1  Charles  Darwin.    On  the  Agency  of  Bees  in  the  Fertiliza- 
tion of  Papilionaceous  Flowers.     Gard.  Chron.  1858.   Page  828. 

2  Appendix,  p.  353. 

8  Outlines,  I,  pp.  20-27. 


EARLY    SUMMER    FLOWERS.  239 

ules  are  a  very  conspicuous  part  of  the  leaf  in 
the  Pea.  The  flowers  spring  from  the  axils  and 
are  solitary  or  with  several  from  each  axil. 

The  corolla  is  wonderfully  fitted  together. 
The  standard  has  two  hard  swellings  at  its 
base,  under  which  fit  two  processes  of  the  wings, 
little  depressions  or  pouches,  which  fit  into  cor- 
responding depressions  in  the  keel  and  cohere 
with  them  (Fig.  32,  3).  These  processes  hold 
the  parts  of  the  flower  firmly  in  place,  and  when 
the  keel  is  depressed  cause  it  to  spring  quickly 
to  the  same  place  as  before.  It  takes  a  very 
strong  insect  to  overcome  the  resistance  of  the 
parts,  and  the  flower  is  seldom  visited,  so  that 
here  it  is  really  disadvantageous  to  it  to  have 
its  flowers  so  firmly  closed.1  It  was  probably 
adapted  in  its  native  haunts  for  some  special 
insect. 

The  stamens  are  diadelphous,  with  the  nectar 
between  the  tube  of  filaments  and  the  pistil. 

The  style  is  incurved,  shaped  like  a  sickle,  and 
bent  so  strongly  that  the  stigma  points  nearly 
to  the  base  of  the  flower.  On  the  inner  side 

1  The  Fertilization  of  Flowers.     Muller.    Pages  213-214. 


240  EARLY   SUMMER    FLOWERS. 

of   the   style  is    a   thick   brush  of   hairs    (Fig. 

32,4,5). 

The  stamens  dehisce  before  the  bud  opens, 
and  wither,  so  that  the  upper  part  of  the  keel, 
the  stigma,  and  the  brush  of  hairs  on  the  style 
are  thickly  covered  with  pollen.  The  edges  of 
the  opening  in  the  keel  through  which  the  style 
passes  are  elastic ;  they  press  tightly  against  the 
style  and  when  it  returns  into  the  keel  the  pollen 
is  swept  out  and  remains  outside.  This  process 
is  often  repeated,  and  the  filaments,  meanwhile, 
enlarge  and  push  up  the  pollen  until  all  has 
been  swept  out.  Self-fertilization  takes  place, 
for  the  pollen  of  the  same  flower  is  rubbed  on 
the  stigma  by  the  action  of  the  insect.  The 
Pea  is  also  self-fertile  without  insect  aid,  for  the 
stigma  becomes  dusted  with  the  pollen  while  still 
in  the  bud.  It  seems  a  little  strange  that  the 
Pea  should  be  perfectly  self-fertile,  in  view  of 
such  an  elaborate  mechanism,  and  there  are 
many  flowers  nearly  related  to  it  that  are  en- 
tirely dependent  on  insects  for  their  fertilization. 

The  Kidney  Bean  (Pliaseolus  vulgaris)  is  such 
a  flower.  It  blossoms  later  than  the  Pea,  and  we 


FIG.  32.  — Common  Pea.  1.  Branch  with  flowers.  2.  Section  of  flower.  3.  Petals 
taken  apart:  a,  standard;  6,  wings;  c,  keel.  4.  Stamens  and 
style,  the  upper  stamen  raised.  5.  Pistil.  6.  Diagram. 


EARLY   SUMMER    FLOWERS.  241 

can  hardly  compare  it  at  this  particular  lesson, 
unless  we  have  planted  Beans  in  the  schoolroom 
for  the  purpose.  Its  mechanism  is  much  the 
same,  but  self-fertilization  is  impossible,  because 
the  peculiar  twisted  style  projects  far  beyond 
the  stamens.  Darwin  tried  numerous  experi- 
ments in  covering  the  plants  with  a  net  and 
proved  that  they  were  hardly,  if  at  all,  self-fer- 
tile.1 When  he  imitated  the  action  of  the  bees 
he  obtained  good  pods. 

The  Beach  Pea  (Lathyrus)  and  the  Vetches 
are  similar  to  the  cultivated  Pea  in  their  arrange- 
ment. 

LUPINE  (Lupinus  perennis).2 

This  pretty  wild  flower  has  a  very  peculiar 
apparatus  for  pressing  out  the  pollen.  It  is 
called  by  Mu'ller  the  piston  mechanism.3 

The  stamens  are  monadelphous  and  of  two 
sorts,  differing  in  their  uses.  The  five  outer 
stamens  are  longer  in  the  bud  and  the  anthers 
are  much  larger.  They  produce  a  great  deal  of 

1  Cross  and  Self -Fertilization,  p.  160. 

2  Appendix,  p.  354. 

3  The  Fertilization  of  Flowers,  p.  187. 


242  EARLY    SUMMER    FLOWERS. 

pollen  and  dehisce  while  the  flower  is  still  in 
the  bud.  The  pollen  is  left  in  the  apex  of  the 
keel,  just  as  it  is  in  the  Pea.  The  large  oblong 
anthers  then  wither  back  to  the  lower  part  of 
the  keel,  and  the  inner  anthers  begin  to  grow. 
These  are  club-shaped,  and  push  the  pollen  be- 
fore them  with  their  tips,  till  it  is  tightly  packed 
in  the  apex  of  the  keel.  When  the  keel  is 
depressed  by  an  insect  visitor  the  pollen  is 
pushed  up  in  a  narrow  ribbon  by  the  club-shaped 
anthers.  This  process  can  be  repeated  several 
times,  for  the  elasticity  of  the  petals  brings  the 
parts  back  to  their  places,  and  the  elastic  edges 
of  the  keel  prevent  the  pollen  from  being  carried 
back  again. 

The  style  is  surrounded  by  a  collar  of  hairs, 
which  prevents  the  stigma  from  being  fertilized 
with  its  own  pollen. 

One  other  type  of  structure  should  be  men- 
tioned. Certain  flowers  have  their  essential 
organs  confined  under  pressure,  and  these  ex- 
Diode  suddenly  when  they  are  visited  by  insects 
.tad  scatter  the  pollen.  The  common  Medick 
(Medicago  lupulina)  is  an  example  of  this. 


EARLY    SUMMER   FLOWERS.  243 

A  few  of  our  flowers  belonging  to  Leguminosse 
are  not  papilionaceous.  The  only  one  of  them 
often  met  with  is  the  Honey-Locust  ( Gleditschia) . 

The  family  will  be  found  in  the  perigynous 
group  on  the  schedule.  The  corolla  and  stamens 
are  inserted  on  the  calyx  around  the  ovary.  In 
some  of  the  flowers  it  is  rather  difficult  to  see 
this  without  a  very  careful  section,  as  the  sta- 
mens and  petals  are  inserted  near  the  base  of 
the  calyx,  and  the  ovary  is  free.  A  careless 
glance  gives  one  the  impression  that  the  petals 
and  stamens  are  inserted  beneath  the  ovary. 
The  simple,  free  pistil,  becoming  a  legume  in 
fruit,  and  the  monadelphous  or  diadelphous  sta- 
mens, make  the  family  quite  unmistakable.  The 
leaves  are  usually  compound.  They  have  a 
look  that  we  shall  soon  learn  to  recognize  as  a 
leguminous  look,  although  it  is  hard  to  describe. 
The  leaflets  are  smooth,  entire,  and  rather  thin. 

BLUE  FLAG  (Iris  versicolor).1 

A  common  flower  in  our  wet  meadows  in  June 
is  the  Iris,  or  Blue  Flag. 

1  Appendix,  p.  355. 


244 


EAKLY    SUMMER    FLOWERS. 


The  leaves  are  parallel-veined  and  sword- 
shaped,  folded  on  the  midrib,  with  the  inner  sur- 
faces coherent  for  about  half  their  length.  The 
lower  half  is  open  and  clasps  the  stem  or  the 

next  leaf.  Because  of  this 
straddling,  such  leaves 
have  received  the  name 
of  equitant. 

The  flowers  are  large 
and  showy,  purple  blue, 
variegated  with  yellow 
and  green,  and  with  dark 
veins  on  the  sepals.  The 
petals  are  erect  and  un- 
marked. Following  the 
nectar-guides  to  the  base 
of  the  flower,  we  find 
the  nectar  secreted  in 
the  lower  portion  of  the  perianth. 

The  stamens  are  three,  and  are  covered  by  the 
three  overarching  divisions  of  the  style.  They 
are  extrorse,  erect,  and  linear. 

The  style  is  quite  peculiar.  Its  divisions  are 
petaloid,  and  of  the  same  color  as  the  perianth. 


FIG.  33.  —  Iris,  three  perianth  leaves 
removed. 


EAELY    SUMMER    FLOWERS.  245 

The  stigma  is  near  the  apex  of  each  division  of 
the  style,  and  is  in  the  form  of  a  lip,  or  shelf, 
stigmatic  on  the  upper,  but  not  on  the  lower 
side.  These  stigmas  are  just  above  the  stamens. 
An  insect,  creeping  into  the  flower  after  nectar, 
will  follow  the  guides  on  the  outer  perianth- 
leaves  and,  in  so  doing,  will  touch  the  stigmatic 
surface  on  entering,  and  then  be  dusted  with 
pollen  from  the  overarching  stamen.  Coming 
out,  he  will  touch  the  outer  non-stigmatic  sur- 
face of  the  shelf,  and  will  not  fertilize  that 
flower,  but  the  next  which  he  enters.  Self-fer- 
tilization is,  therefore,  wholly  precluded. 

We  have  already  studied  the  family  to  which 
the  Iris  belongs.  The  parallel-veined  leaves, 
and  the  flower  with  its  parts  in  threes,  show 
that  we  have  a  monocotyledon.  It  has  a  colored 
perianth,  an  inferior  ovary,  and  three  stamens, 
and  we  shall  therefore  place  it  in  the  Iris  family 
(Iridacece)  on  our  schedule. 

Another  flower  belonging  to  this  family, 
which  flowers  at  the  same  time  as  the  Iris,  is 
the  Blue-eyed  Grass  (Sisyrinchium).  The  yellow 
Star-grass  (Hypoxis  erecta)  will  be  a  good  flower 


246  EARLY    SUMMER    FLOWERS. 

to  compare  with  it.     This  belongs  to  the  Ama- 
ryllis family. 

Many  of  the  Lily  family  flower  in  June.  The 
Star-of -Bethlehem  ( Ornithogalum  umbeUatum), 
the  Solomon's  Seal  (Polygonatum),  the  various 
Smilacinas,  the  Wild  Lily-of-the-V alley  (Maian- 
themum  Canadense)  the  Clintonia,  the  Green- 
briar  (Smilax),  the  Indian  Cucumber-Root  (Mede- 
ola  Virginica),  and  the  Indian  Poke  ( Veratrum 
viride)  will  supply  material  for  as  much  study  of 
the  Liliaceae  as  can  be  desired. 

MOUNTAIN-LAUREL  (Kalmia  latifolia).1 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  of  our  June  flowers 
is  the  Mountain-Laurel.  One  who  has  seen  a 
hillside  completely  covered  with  this  plant  in 
flower,  or  a  thicket  with  the  rosy  clusters  shining 
out  among  the  other  shrubs,  will  always  remem- 
ber it  as  one  of  the  floral  displays  of  the  world. 

The  leaves  are  evergreen,  smooth,  shining,  and 
clustered  at  the  ends  of  the  branches,  surround- 
ing the  full  corymbs  of  pink  and  white  flowers. 

The  corolla  is  of  a  peculiar  shape,  wheel- 
shaped  at  the  base,  with  ten  spokes  that  end  in 

1  Appendix,  p.  356. 


EARLY    SUMMER    FLOWERS.  247 

little  pockets  in  the  bell-shaped,  plaited,  five-lobed 
border.  It  is  contracted  at  the  base  into  a  short, 
narrow  tube.  It  is  beautifully  tinged  with  rose- 
color,  or  nearly  white,  and  has  a  wavy  rose- 
colored  line  at  the  mouth  of  the  tube.  The  ten 
anthers,  held  by  elastic  filaments  which  fly  up 
when  released,  fit  into  the  pockets  of  the  bell. 
This  release  is  accomplished  by  bees,  which  suck 
the  nectar  in  the  base  of  the  tube  and,  in  so 
doing,  pull  the  filament,  which  suddenly  flies 
back  from  its  constrained  position,  throwing  the 
pollen  against  the  insect,  and  often  to  a  con- 
siderable distance  from  the  flower.1 

1  "  When  the  anthers  are  liberated  from  the  pockets  in  the 
corolla,  the  stamens  suddenly  straighten,  and  throw  jets  of  pollen 
often  for  a  foot  or  more,  '  acting/  as  Professor  Gray  used  to  say, 
'  like  a  boy's  pea-shooter.' 

"  Many  times  when  the  dew  was  on,  I  have  seen  the  common 
honey-bee  and  other  Hymenoptera  about  these  flowers.  When 
the  bee  alights  on  the  flower,  the  style  comes  up  between  the 
legs  where  they  join  the  body,  or  sometimes  farther  back  against 
the  abdomen. 

"  In  this  position  they  turn  round  as  though  they  were  balanced 
on  a  pivot,  generally  inserting  the  tongue  outside  of  the  filament, 
and,  while  doing  this,  pull  the  stamens  with  their  legs  towards 
the  centre  of  the  flower,  releasing  them  and  subsequently  receiv- 
ing the  shots  of  pollen  on  their  own  body.  A  single  visit  from 
an  insect  is  sufficient  to  release  all  the  anthers."  —  W.  J.  Beal, 
in  Amer.  Nat,  Vol.  I,  p.  257. 


248  EARLY    SUMMER   FLOWERS. 

The  pollen  is  discharged  from  the  holes  in  the 
apex  of  the  anther,  and  is  quite  safe  from  dis- 
turbance, as  long  as  the  anther  has  its  head 
buried  in  the  pocket.  Professor  Beal  found  that 
the  anthers  were  seldom  released  when  the  flow- 
ers were  covered  with  a  net. 

We  have  already  studied  the  Azalea  and 
Epigaea,  belonging  to  the  Heath  family.  In 
this  order  the  ovary  is  sometimes  inferior,  some- 
times superior.  The  anthers  dehisce  through 
pores  in  the  apex  of  each  cell.  The  Epigaea  and 
a  few  other  members  of  the  family  have  anthers 
which  dehisce  throughout  their  whole  length. 

Other  members  of  the  Heath  family  that 
flower  at  the  same  time  as  the  Laurel  are  the 
Pyrolas,  the  Huckleberry,  Blueberry,  Cranberry, 
and  Deerberry,  the  Andromeda,  and  the  interest- 
ing parasites,  Indian-Pipe  and  Beech-Drops. 

BUSH-HONEYSUCKLE  (Diervilla  trifida).1 

The  Honeysuckle  family  is  one  that  is  well 
represented  in  June  by  the  various  Viburnums, 
the  Elder,  the  Honeysuckles,  and  towards  the 

1  Appendix,  p.  358. 


EARLY    SUMMER    FLOWERS.  249 

north  the  exquisite  Linnaea  Borealis.  We  will 
take  a  common  plant  as  our  specimen  for  study, 
the  Diervilla  trifida,  or  Bush-Honeysuckle.  We 
have  another  Diervilla  (D.  Japonica),  known  as 
Weigelia,  which  is  very  common  in  our  gardens, 
and  may  be  substituted  for  the  wild  species,  if 
desirable. 

The  Wild  Diervilla  is  a  shrub,  growing  from 
one  to  four  feet  high.  It  has  a  creeping  root- 
stock  throwing  up  long,  simple  shoots,  becoming 
branched  near  the  top.  The  leaves  are  opposite, 
without  stipules,  which  is  a  character  belonging 
to  the  whole  family. 

The  flowers  are  in  terminal  and  axillary 
cymes,  near  the  summit  of  the  stem,  generally 
three-flowered,  whence  the  specific  name,  trifida. 
The  corolla  is  funnel-shaped,  with  the  lower  lobe 
larger,  deeper  yellow,  and  crested,  so  that  we 
naturally  look  at  its  base  to  find  the  nectar,  and 
see  there  a  small  gland.  The  corolla  is  on  the 
summit  of  the  ovary,  and  the  stamens  are  united 
with  it.  The  filaments  are  clothed  with  soft  hairs, 
forming  a  protection  from  the  rain  for  the  nectar, 
and  perhaps  keeping  out  unwelcome  guests  also. 


250  EARLY    SUMMER    FLOWERS. 

The  style  is  at  first  straight,  but  in  the  older 
flowers  is  declined.  The  stigma  is  capitate. 

The  corolla  changes  in  color  after  fertiliza- 
tion from  honey-yellow  to  a  deep  yellow.  This 
change  of  color  may  assist  the  bees  to  save  time 
by  showing  them  the  flowers  which  are  too  old 
to  contain  nectar,  a  point  that  we  noticed  in 
connection  with  the  Horsechestnut,  p.  122. 

The  change  of  color  is  more  decided  in  the  gar- 
den Weigelia.1  It  would  be  interesting  for  the 
pupils  to  watch  these  plants  to  determine 
whether  insects  ever  visit  the  flowers  after  the 
change  of  color  occurs. 

As  the  flower  has  an  inferior  ovary  it  will 
come  among  the  first  families  in  our  gamopeta- 
lous  division,  where  there  are  few  to  choose 
from,  and  we  shall  recognize  the  Honeysuckle 
family  (Caprifoliacece)  by  its  having  the  parts  in 
fives,  a  tubular  corolla  with  the  stamens  on  its 
tube,  and  opposite  leaves  without  stipules. 

Several  Viburnums  flower  about  this  time, 
among  them  Viburnum  Opulus,  the  bush  known 
to  country  people  as  the  High-bush  Cranberry, 

1  Reader  in  Botany,  XV,  "  Colors  of  Plants." 


EARLY    SUMMER    FLOWERS.  251 

and  used  as  a  substitute  for  that  fruit.  The 
outer  flowers  of  the  large  cyme  are  neutral,  that 
is,  lacking  the  essential  organs,  and  they  have 
large,  pure  white  corollas,  which  render  the 
whole  cluster  conspicuous  to  insects.  The  same 
thing  occurs  in  the  Hobble-Bush  ( V.  lantan- 
oides\  and  in  the  Hydrangea,  belonging  to  the 
Saxifrage  family.  These  sterile  flowers,  useless 
in  themselves,  are  nevertheless  useful  to  the 
whole  cluster  in  attracting  insects.1  The  Snow- 
ball tree  is  a  variety  of  V.  Opulus  with  the 
whole  cyrne  turned  into  showy  flowers,  and 
therefore  quite  sterile.  This  state  of  things,  of 
course,  could  only  exist  in  a  plant  under  culti- 
vation. 

The  family  most  nearly  resembling  the 
Honeysuckle  family  is  the  Madder  family 
(Riibiaceai),  of  which  we  have  had  an  example 
in  Houstonia.  The  Bedstraw  (Galium)  and 
the  pretty  Partridge-Berry  (Mitchella)  are  in 
flower  in  June,  and  may  be  used  for  comparison. 
We  distinguish  the  Rubiacege  by  the  opposite 
leaves,  connected  with  interposed  stipules,  in 

1  Fertilization  of  Flowers,  p.  291. 


252  EARLY    SUMMER    FLOWERS. 

Houstonia  and  Mitch  ella,  and  the  whorled 
leaves  in  Galium,  for  in  the  Honeysuckle  fam- 
ily the  leaves  are  alternate  and  without  stipules. 

The  Partridge-Berry  has  two  flowers  with 
twin  ovaries  on  each  flower-stalk,  making  the 
familiar  scarlet  berry,  crowned  by  the  double 
calyx,  which  remains  on  the  plant  all  winter. 

The  flowers  are  dimorphous,  as  in  Houstonia, 
and  are  occasionally  dioecious.  Dimorphous 
flowers  are  more  common  in  Rubiaceae  than  in 
any  other  family.  Darwin  discusses  them  very 
fully  in  Forms  of  Flowers.1 

1  The  Different  Forms  of  Flowers  or  Plants  of  the  Same  Spe- 
cies. By  Charles  Darwin.  D.  Appleton.  Page  132. 


XII. 

EARLY    SUMMER    FLOWERS.  —  concluded. 

WE  will  now  turn  to  another  group  of  plants 
among  the  Gamopetalse,  those  with  superior  ovary 
and  regular  corolla,  and  will  take  first  a  char- 
acteristic specimen  of  the  Convolvulus  family. 

HEDGE  BINDWEED  (Convolvulus  sepium).1 

This  is  a  common  trailing  and  twining  plant 
with  arrow-shaped  or  halberd-shaped  leaves.  The 
flowers  open  in  the  morning  and  close  at  night. 
The  corolla  is  rose-colored  or  white,  of  a  very 
delicate  texture,  and  trumpet-shaped.  It  is  con- 
volute in  the  bud,  and  this  form  of  aestivation 
gives  the  name  to  the  genus  and  to  the  family. 

The  stamens  are  five  in  number,  on  the  co- 
rolla, and  conniving  closely  around  the  style. 
The  only  openings  to  the  nectar,  which  is  se- 

1  Appendix,  p.  359. 

253 


254  EARLY   SUMMER    FLOWERS. 

creted  by  a  yellow  glandular  disk  surrounding 
the  ovary,  are  between  the  bases  of  the  fila- 
ments. 

Looking  down  into  the  flower  we  can  see 
these  five  little  cavities,  often  filled  with  the 
shining  nectar.  This  is  well  protected  from 
rain  by  the  hairs  on  the  bases  of  the  filaments, 
as  well  as  by  the  connivance  of  the  filaments 
themselves. 

The  anthers  are  innate  and  dehisce  on  the 
margins  and  the  pollen  is  rubbed  off  by  an 
insect  delving  for  the  nectar.  The  style,  ending 
in  a  two-parted  stigma,  overtops  the  stamens. 
Self-fertilization  is  not  likely,  therefore,  to  take 
place. 

The  flower  is  not  visited  by  many  insects. 
Miiller  says  it  is  visited  by  a  night  moth,  Sphinx 
Convolvuli.1  I  have  seen  a  bumble-bee  sucking 
the  nectar  who  visited  all  the  open  flowers  in  a 
large  bed  in  the  space  of  a  few  minutes. 

The  Convolvulus  family  may  be  known, 
among  the  gamopetalous  families  with  superior 
ovary  and  regular  flowers,  by  possessing  chiefly 

1  Fertilization  of  Flowers,  p.  424.  ( 


EARLY   SUMMER    FLOWERS.  255 

twining  or  trailing  herbs  with  a  five-lobed,  con- 
volute corolla.  The  leaves  are  alternate.  In 
the  Dodder,  a  parasitic  plant,  the  corolla  is 
imbricated. 

POTATO  (Solanum  tuberosum). 

The  potato  fields  begin  to  blossom  in  June, 
and  will  afford  us  an  example  of  another  order, 
the  Nightshade  family  (Solanacece),  belonging  to 
this  group  with  superior  ovary  and  regular 
corolla. 

The  Potato  has  a  very  pretty  flower,  with  its 
pure  white  corolla  and  golden  stamens,  and 
when  picked  will  sometimes  be  admired  by 
people  in  ignorance  of  its  identity. 

The  herbage  is  hairy  and  coarse,  and  the 
leaves  are  pinnate,  with  minute  leaflets  inter- 
mixed. The  clusters  of  flowers  are  terminal, 
but  appear  to  be  axillary.  They  are  forked  at 
the  base,  and  the  younger  flowers  arise  as  lateral 
branches  of  the  older  one.  The  clusters  are 
therefore  cymose. 

The  calyx  is  five-parted,  with  linear-lanceo- 
late divisions.  The  corolla  is  wheel-shaped, 


256  EARLY   SUMMER    FLOWERS. 

valvate  in  the  bud,  and  plaited,  reminding  us 
of  the  Convolvulus. 

The  stamens  have  very  short  filaments  and 
large  oblong  anthers,  closely  surrounding  the 
style.  The  pollen  is  discharged  through  a  hole 
in  the  apex  of  each  cell  (Fig.  34,  2,  4,  5). 

The  ovary  is  two-celled  with  the  large  pla- 
centae in  the  axis.  The  style  is  curved  down- 
wards and  has  a  capitate  stigma  (Fig.  34,3,  6,  7). 

The  fruit  is  a  round  berry,  with  persistent 
calyx,  generally  known  as  a  potato-ball.  In  a, 
search  through  three  fields  this  summer  I  failed 
to  find  a  single  fruit,  and  the  illustrator  of  this 
volume  could  not  find  one  to  put  into  her  illus- 
tration. This  is  due  probably  to  cultivation, 
the  fruit  having  become  unnecessary  to  the  well- 
being  of  the  plant. 

The  arrangement  of  the  stamens  and  style 
seems  to  aim  at  cross-fertilization,  for  the  flower 
stands  horizontally  on  the  axis,  and  the  lower 
stamens  project  beyond  the  upper,  but  it  secretes 
no  nectar,  and  is  not  much  visited  by  insects.1 
In  the  specimens  examined  in  the  sterile  fields 

1  Fertilization  of  Flowers,  p.  425. 


FIG.  34.  — Potato.  1.  Flowering  branch.  2.  Single  flower.  3.  Vertical  section. 
4,  5.  Back  and  front  of  anther.  6.  Pistil.  7.  Section  of  ovary 
8.  Diagram. 


EARLY   SUMMER    FLOWERS.  257 

above  referred  to,  the  anthers  appeared  to  be 
also  sterile. 

A  common  Solanum,  that  may  be  studied 
instead  of  the  potato  blossom,  is  the  Nightshade 
(S.  nigrum). 

The  Tomato  (Ly coper sicum  esculentum) 1  is  a 
nearly  related  plant.  Here  the  clusters  of  blos- 
soms are  lateral,  and  not  even  opposite  a  leaf. 
But  if  we  examine  the  young  forming  flower- 
buds  we  shall  find  them  terminal,  with  an  axil- 
lary bud  in  the  axil  of  the  nearest  leaf,  which  in 
its  development  pushes  the  flower-cluster  to  one 
side.  The  flower-stalk  is  united  to  the  stem  of 
this  branch,  and  the  growth  of  united  stalk  and 
stem  carries  the  flower-cluster  up  away  from  the 
neighboring  leaf-axil.  The  ovary  of  the  Tomato 
differs  from  the  typical  ovary  of  the  Nightshade 
family  in  having  the  carpels  increased  in  num- 
ber, and  is  often  many -celled. 

The  fruit  is  a  berry  with  the  principal  part  of 
the  eatable  pulp  developed  from  the  large  pla- 
centee. 

The  Nightshade  family  is  distinguished  from 

1  Appendix,  p.  360. 


258  EARLY    SUMMER   FLOWERS. 

the  Convolvulus  family  by  having  numerous 
ovules  on  the  axis,  instead  of  a  pair  of  erect 
ovules  in  each  cell.  The  corolla  is  imbricated 
or  valvate,  instead  of  being  convolute. 

The  Borage  family  has  a  regular  corolla, 
alternate  leaves,  and  a  simple  style.  We  have 
already  treated  this  family  in  connection  with 
the  Labiates,  p.  194. 

The  Phlox  family  (Polemoniacece)  has  a  reg- 
ular corolla  with  alternate  leaves.  It  may  be 
recognized  by  the  three-cleft  style  and  three- 
celled  ovary.  There  are  several  Phloxes  com- 
mon in  our  gardens,  of  which  the  Phlox  Drum- 
mondii  is  perhaps  the  earliest.  The  leaves  of 
this  plant  are  opposite  and  sessile,  the  corolla 
salver-shaped,  and  the  stamens  inserted  very 
unequally  on  its  tube. 

We  will  examine  two  families  in  this  group, 
the  Milkweed  family  (Asclepiadacece)  and  the 
Dogbane  family  (Apocynacece).  These  orders 
have  herbs  with  milky  juice,  and  one-celled 
ovaries  becoming  follicles  in  fruit. 


EARLY    SUMMER    FLOWERS.  259 

BUTTERFLY- WEED  (Asdepias  tuberosa).1 

We  have  chosen  this  Asclepias  for  our  ex- 
ample because  it  is  the  first  to  blossom,  and 
comes  into  flower  the  latter  part  of  June.  The 
Milk-weeds  generally  do  not  blossom  till  July. 
They  are  all  so  much  alike,  however,  that  the 
study  of  any  species  will  show  the  points  that 
call  for  especial  notice  in  the  rest. 

The  Butterfly- Weed  differs  from  the  others  in 
being  without  milky  juice.  Oar  common  Milk- 
weeds (A.  cornuti,  A.  phytolaccoides,  A.  quadri- 
folia)  have  an  abundant  milky  juice,  which  is 
very  sticky  and  makes  the  flowers  unpleasant  to 
pick. 

The  leaves  of  the  Butterfly-Weed  are  opposite, 
simple,  and  lance-oblong,  on  erect  stems  which 
branch  near  the  top.  The  showy  flowers  are  in 
simple  terminal  umbels,  with  an  involucre  of 
tiny,  awl-shaped  bracts  (Fig.  35,  i).  They  are 
complex  in  their  structure  and  wonderfully 
adapted  to  fertilization  by  insects. 

The  calyx  is  free  and  very  deeply  parted  into 

1  Appendix,  p.  361. 


260  EARLY    SUMMER    FLOWERS. 

five  small  reflexed  divisions.  The  corolla  is  also 
free,  reflexed,  five-parted,  and  of  a  brilliant 
orange-red  color.  Joined  to  its  base  is  a  column 
of  five  united  filaments,  bearing  five  hooded 
nectaries,  each  containing  a  narrow,  incurved 
horn  (Fig.  35,  2,  3,  4).  These  nectaries  are  alter- 
nate with  the  divisions  of  the  corolla,  as  are  the 
anthers  also.  Each  of  the  two-celled  anthers 
has  a  flat  wing  on  either  side,  projecting  at  right 
angles  to  the  column  (Fig.  35,5,6).  The  wings 
of  adjacent  anthers  lie  closely  together,  leaving 
a  narrow  slit  between,  which  is  wider  at  the 
bottom  than  at  the  top.  Just  above  this  slit  is 
a  small  shining  black  body  (corpuscula  or,  less 
properly  but  more  commonly,  gland],  which  is 
cleft  in  the  centre  and  tapers  at  top  and  bottom. 
This  so-called  gland  is  fastened  by  elastic  threads 
to  a  pollen-mass  on  either  side,  in  such  a  way 
that  the  pollen-masses  of  neighboring  anthers 
are  connected,  while  those  belonging  to  the 
same  anther  are  quite  distinct  (Fig.  35,  7,  s). 
The  connective  of  each  anther  is  continued  into 
a  membranaceous  appendage,  which  clasps  the 
disk  in  the  centre  of  the  flower. 


FIG.  35.  — Butterfly-Weed.  1.  Flowering  branch.  2.  Section  of  flower.  3,4.  Nec- 
tary. 5.  Anther  from  without.  6.  Anther  from  within.  7.  Pol- 
len-masses, 8.  Pollen-masses  after  movement  has  taken  place. 
9.  Pollen-mass  sending  out  pollen-tubes.  10.  Pod.  11.  Pod  split- 
ting. 12.  Seed.  13.  Diagram. 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


EARLY    SUMMER    FLOWERS.  261 

The  pistil  is  of  two  carpels  with  separate 
ovaries,  containing  many  seeds,  and  short  styles, 
stigmatic  at  the  top,  the  stigmas  being  connected 
with  the  outside  world  only  through  the  slits 
between  the  anthers.  Above  these  stigmas  is  a 
five-lobed  disk,  over  which  the  tips  of  the  anthers 
clasp  tightly.  This  disk  is  not  really  stigmatic 
and  acts  as  a  covering  merely  (yynostegiuni) . 

The  fertilization  is  accomplished  as  follows. 
An  insect  searching  for  nectar  alights  on  the 
flower  and  clasps  the  central  column  with  his 
legs,  while  he  explores  a  nectary  with  his  pro- 
boscis. In  so  doing,  he  often  gets  his  leg  caught 
in  a  slit  between  the  anthers,  and  in  endeavoring 
to  pull  it  out  drags  it  up  through  the  slit,  and 
wedges  some  of  the  hairs  on  his  leg  into  the 
cleft  gland.  This  is  accomplished  by  the  hair 
being  wedged  in  the  split  part  of  the  gland, 
not  through  any  stickiness.  If  he  succeeds  in 
extricating  himself  (and  sometimes  a  small  bee 
will  find  himself  quite  unable  to  get  away,  or 
will  leave  his  leg  behind  him),  he  will  bring  with 
him  two  pollen-masses  attached  to  the  gland. 
A  movement  then  takes  place  in  the  pollen- 


262  EARLY    SUMMER    FLOWERS. 

masses,  which  are  at  first  in  the  same  plane 
(Fig.  35,  7),  by  which  they  are  brought  closely 
face  to  face  (Fig.  35,  s).  This  movement  takes 
place  rather  slowly,  so  that  by  the  time  the  two 
masses  of  pollen  are  thus  fitted  together  the 
insect  has  reached  another  flower.  If  the  same 
movement  is  repeated,  and  the  bee's  leg  is  again 
pushed  into  a  slit,  a  pollen-mass  is  often  pushed 
in  also,  and  torn  away  from  the  gland  when  the 
insect  leaves  the  flower.  Here  they  send  out 
copious  pollen-tubes  to  the  stigmas  within  (Fig. 
35,  9),  and  the  flower  is  fertilized. 

This  is  not  accomplished  without  frequent 
fatalities  among  the  insect  visitors.  I  have 
often  seen  bees,  flies,  and  even  butterflies  caught 
by  our  large  Milkweed  (A.  cornuti),  and  forced 
to  undergo  a  lingering  death  from  starvation. 
Another  mode  of  death  is  mentioned  in  the  fol- 
lowing extract :  — 

"On  a  single  specimen  I  counted  over  one 
hundred  pollen-masses  attached  to  the  claws 
and  legs.  When  the  claws  are  thus  fettered 
the  bee  cannot  climb  upon  the  combs  nor  collect 
honey,  and  is  soon  expelled  from  the  hive  and 


EARLY    SUMMER    FLOWERS.  263 

must  die.     The  unfettered  bees  tumble  them  out 
with  little  ceremony." 1 

The  fruit  of  all  the  Milkweeds  is  a  follicle 
filled  with  numerous  seeds  (Fig.  35,  11),  bearing 
each  a  beautiful  tuft  of  down  (Fig.  35,  12),  which 
must  aid  them  materially  in  their  dissemination 
and  help  to  render  them  so  widely  spread  and 
so  common.  Often  only  one  of  the  pair  of  fol- 
licles develop  (Fig.  35,  10). 

SPREADING  DOGBANE  (Apocynum  androscemi- 
folium)? 

An  interesting  family  to  compare  with  the 
Milkweeds  is  the  Dogbane  family  (Apocy- 
nacece).  The  Spreading  Dogbane  flowers  in  June 
and  July,  and  is  quite  common  on  the  edges  of 
thickets  and  along  the  roadsides. 

It  is  an  herb,  growing  about  two  feet  high, 
with  stems  branching  towards  the  top,  and  oppo- 
site, simple,  entire  leaves.  The  juice  is  milky. 
The  flowers  are  small,  in  loose  cymose  clusters 
(Fig.  36,  i). 

1  American  Naturalist,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  109.  See  also  Botanical 
Gazette,  Vol.  XII,  pp.  207-216,  244-250.  2  Appendix,  p.  363. 


264  EARLY   SUMMER    FLOWERS. 

The  calyx  is  small,  with  five  lanceolate  lobes. 
The  corolla  is  bell-shaped,  five-lobed,  white,  with 
rose-colored  stripes  alternating  with  the  lobes, 
and  a  triangular  appendage  near  the  base,  oppo- 
site the  lobes.  These  little  triangles  fit  into  the 
openings  between  the  anthers. 

There  are  five  stamens  on  the  base  of  the 
corolla,  with  thick,  short,  hairy  filaments,  and 
arrow-shaped  anthers  which  connive  closely 
around  the  style  (Fig.  36,  2, 4,  5).  The  tips  of  the 
anthers  are  membranaceous  and  meet  at  the  apex, 
so  as  to  cover  the  style  completely  (Fig.  36,  3). 
The  anthers  are  two-celled  and  the  barbs  at  the 
base  curve  outward,  making  the  slits  between 
wider  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top.  Alternating 
with  the  filaments  are  nectar-glands,  which  may 
be  the  rudiments  of  an  inner  circle  of  stamens. 

The  pistil  is  of  two  carpels,  with  separate 
ovaries  and  a  single  style,  which  is  thick,  short, 
and  two-lobed  at  the  apex.  The  style  is  divided 
across  by  a  membrane  and  all  the  pollen  is 
contained  in  the  upper  part  of  the  anthers,  so 
that  no  pollen  can  reach  the  lower,  stigmatic 
portion  of  the  style  without  the  aid  of  in- 


FIG.  36.  —  Spreading  Dogbane.  1.  Flowering  branch.  2.  Flower  with  half  the 
perianth  cut  away.  3.  Vertical  section  of  flower.  4,  5.  Anther. 
8.  Branch  with  fruit.  9.  Seed.  10.  Diagram. 


EARLY   SUMMER   FLOWERS.  265 

sects.1  The  approach  to  the  stigma  is  through 
the  slits  between  the  anthers,  as  in  the  Milk- 
weed. In  the  case  of  the  Dogbane,  the  insect, 
while  sucking  the  nectar  from  the  gland  which 
lies  just  below  the  slit,  gets  his  tongue  caught. 
The  upper  part  of  the  style  is  glutinous,  and 
looks  like  a  stigmatic  surface,  but  it  is  probable 
that  the  sticky  substance  there  acts  merely  as 
a  cement,  with  which  the  fly  comes  in  contact 
in  his  struggles  to  escape,  and  by  its  aid  carries 
away  the  light,  granular  pollen,  which  is  after- 
wards deposited  on  the  stigmatic  surface  of 
another  flower.  It  is  certain  that  flies  and 
small  bees  are  often  caught,  and  we  shall  find 
their  remains  in  many  blossoms. 

The  fruit  is  a  follicle,  and  the  seeds  are  fur- 
nished with  a  tuft  of  down  (Fig.  36,  9),  but, 
whether  from  failure  to  fertilize,  or  some  other 
reason,  the  plant  seldom  sets  seed. 

Let  us  sum  up  the  resemblances  between  this 
flower  and  the  Milkweeds :  the  leaves  are  oppo- 
site, simple,  and  entire  ;  the  juice  is  milky ;  the 
anthers  enclose  the  pistil,  and  are  so  placed  that 

1  Torrey  Bulletin,  Vol.  Ill,  46,  49,  53,  57. 


266  EARLY   SUMMER   FLOWERS. 

the  slits  between  adjacent  anthers  often  detain 
insects,  and  cross-fertilization  is  carried  out  by 
means  of  this  trap ;  the  style  is  in  two  portions, 
of  which  the  lower  is  the  stigmatic  portion,  while 
the  upper  part  is  developed  into  a  disk  in  the 
Milkweeds,  and  a  glutinous,  two-horned  appen- 
dage in  the  Dogbane ;  the  way  to  the  stigma  lies 
only  through  the  slits  between  the  anthers  in 
both.  Finally,  the  fruit  of  both  is  a  pair  of 
follicles,  and  the  seeds  have  a  tuft  of  down  to 
aid  their  dissemination. 

Both  these  families,  Asdepiadacece  and  Apoc- 
ynacece,  are  distinguished)  in  the  group  of  regu- 
lar gamopetalous  plants,  by  their  simple,  entire 
leaves,  milky  juice,  and  two  ovaries,  becoming 
follicles  in  fruit.  In  the  former  family  the 
filaments  are  united  and  the  pollen  coheres  in 
masses  ;  in  the  latter  the  filaments  are  distinct 
and  the  pollen  is  granular. 

WATER-LILY  (Nymphcea  odorata).1 

In  June  our  Water-Lily  begins  to  blossom. 
The  stem  of  this  plant  is  a  rootstock,  immersed 

1  Appendix,  p.  364. 


EARLY   SUMMER    FLOWERS.  267 

in  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  the  pond  in  which 
the  flowers  float.  This  stem  is  not  like  the 
ordinary  stems  of  dicotyledons,  but  resembles 
the  monocotyledons  in  structure.1 

The  large,  heart-shaped,  entire  leaves  float  on 
the  surface  of  the  water.  They  have  triangular 
stipules  close  to  the  rootstock. 

We  do  not  like  to  cut  the  exquisite  flower  for 

1  The  stems  of  our  Water-Lilies  consist  of  submerged 
rhizomata  or  rootstocks.  The  true  Lilies  are  monocotyledonous 
plants,  and  their  stems  are  distinctly  endogenous ;  the  strengthen- 
ing tissues,  the  bast-fibres,  being  scattered  throughout  in  an 
apparently  irregular  manner.  The  stems  of  most  dicotyledonous 
plants  are,  on  the  contrary,  exogenous,  having  their  bast-fibres 
arranged  in  a  cylinder,  within  which  lies  the  wood  as  a  shaft, 
and  around  the  whole  the  outer  bark  is  wrapped.  In  herbaceous 
dicotyledons  the  wood  exists  generally  in  a  soft  and  sometimes 
almost  unrecognizable  state,  but  as  a  rule  there  is  a  distinction 
to  be  made  out  between  the  bast  and  the  wood,  and  they  are  not 
arranged  together  in  fibres  scattered  throughout  the  mass  of  the 
stem. 

In  the  Water-Lilies,  however,  which  are  dicotyledonous  plants, 
the  stem  is  only  obscurely  exogenous ;  it  resembles  rather  that 
of  some  monocotyledons,  and  might  easily  be  mistaken  for 
endogenous  structure.  The  stems  are  perennial  both  in  the 
sweet-scented  or  eastern  species  and  in  the  western  sweet- 
scented  Nymphsea  tuberosa.  — Wild  Flowers  of  America.  George 
L.  Goodale.  Illustrated  by  Isaac  Spragne.  Boston,  S.  E.  Cassino, 
1882,  p.  161. 


268  EARLY   SUMMER   FLOWERS. 

a  vertical  section,  but  we  must  in  order  to  find 
out  anything  about  its  structure. 

The  sepals,  petals,  and  stamens  are  arranged 
spirally,  and  are  adnate  to  the  ovary.  There  is 
no  absolute  distinction  between  sepals  and  petals, 
or  between  petals  and  stamens.  The  four  outer 
perianth-leaves  are  green  and  shining  without, 
and  white  and  delicate  within.  The  next  in 
order  are  tinged  without  with  green,  and  be- 
come pure  white,  and  gradually  smaller,  "as  we 
approach  the  centre  of  the  flower.  The  inner- 
most petals  are  contracted,  tinged  with  yellow, 
and  some  of  them  bear  anther-cells  at  the  tips. 
Finally,  around  the  stigma  are  the  perfect  sta- 
mens, with  slender  filaments,  and  adnate  anthers. 

The  pistil  has  a  many-celled  ovary,  with  the 
seeds  on  the  walls,  except  on  the  edges  of  the 
carpels.  This  is  an  exception  to  the  general 
rule,  for  we  have  seen  in  all  the  flowers  we  have 
studied  that  the  ovules  are  borne  on  the  edges 
of  the  carpels.  There  is  no  style ;  on  the  top 
of  the  pistil  there  is  a  little  round  globular  head 
from  which  radiate  the  stigmas,  covering  the 
top  of  the  ovary,  and  ending  in  sterile  tips  which 


EARLY   SUMMER   FLOWERS.  269 

curve  upwards.  These  are  golden  yellow  like 
the  stamens. 

The  fruit  is  a  capsule,  maturing  under  water, 
and  the  seeds  are  enclosed  in  a  covering  called 
an  aril. 

The  gradual  change  of  the  petals  into  stamens 
is  very  instructive,  and  is  cited  in  the  following 
chapter  as  a  good  illustration  of  the  origin  of 
the  stamens  from  modified  leaves. 

The  family  to  which  the  Water-Lily  belongs 
(Nymphceacece)  has  generally  hypogynous  flowers 
and  will  be  found  in  that  group.  It  is  dis- 
tinguished by  containing  aquatic  plants  with  the 
ovules  borne  on  the  back  or  sides  of  the  carpels, 
not,  as  in  most  plants,  on  the  edges  of  the  carpels. 
The  leaves  are  peltate  or  cordate,  and  floating. 
The  yellow  Cow-Lily  (Nuphar  advena)  is  another 
common  member  of  the  family. 

SWEET- VERNAL  GRASS  (Anthoxanthum 
odoratum).1 

In  June  the  grasses  begin  to  flower  abundantly, 
and  we  must  not  neglect  this  important  family, 
although  it  is  a  somewhat  difficult  study. 

1  Appendix,  p.  365. 


270  EARLY    SUMMER    FLOWERS. 

One  of  the  easiest  of  our  early  blossoming 
grasses  to  analyze  is  the  Sweet- Vernal  Grass, 
which  gives  such  a  delicious  odor  to  the 
hay. 

It  is  a  rather  delicate  grass,  about  a  foot  high. 
The  roots  are  fibrous,  and  the  plant  is  perennial. 
The  stem  is  hollow  with  closed  joints,  and  is 
called  a  culm.  The  bases  of  the  culms  produce 
shoots,  which  run  underground,  and  throw  up 
erect  stems,  making  the  plant  densely  tufted, 
the  usual  habit  of  grasses  which  make  turf. 
The  leaves  are  long,  narrow,  and  parallel  veined, 
and  are  arranged  alternately  on  the  opposite 
sides  of  the  stem.  They  sheathe  the  stem  for 
some  distance,  so  that  the  leaf  is  in  two  distinct 
portions,  the  sheath  and  the  blade.  Where  these 
join  there  is  a  membranaceous  appendage,  the 
ligule. 

At  the  end  of  the  flowering  stem  is  the  flower- 
cluster,  which  is  a  contracted  spike-like  panicle 
in  the  Anthoxanthum.  The  flower-cluster  is 
composed  of  small  separate  clusters,  called  spike- 
lets  (Fig.  37,  D,  2). 

In  examining  a  grass,  after  we  have  described 


EARLY   SUMMER   FLOWERS.  271 

the  general  vegetative  characters  and  the  whole 
inflorescence,  we  must  always  isolate  a  spikelet 
and  examine  it  under  a  lens.  We  shall  find 
that  the  Anthoxanthum  spikelet  is  composed  of 
six  alternating  bracts  (glumes) ,  making  a  crowded, 
two-ranked  cluster,  with  two  stamens  and  a  pistil 
within.  The  lower  glume  is  keeled,  the  next 
about  twice  as  large,  of  firmer  texture  and 
nerved ;  the  two  next  are  two-lobed,  hairy,  and 
keeled,  with  the  keel  produced  into  a  long  bris- 
tle called  an  awn  (Fig.  37,  Z>,  2).  The  fifth  bract 
is  transparent  and  thin,  tightly  enclosing  the 
sixth,  which  is  smaller.  These  last  two  enclose 
the  flower,  which  consists  of  two  distinct  stamens, 
and  a  pistil  with  a  one-celled,  one-seeded  ovary, 
and  two-feathery  stigmas.  The  two  bracts  which 
enclose  the  flower  are  named  respectively  the 
flowering  glume  and  the  palet.  Formerly  they 
were  both  called  palets,  the  outer  and  the  inner 
palet.  In  most  grasses  this  palet  differs  from 
the  flowering  glume  in  shape,  nerving,  and  text- 
ure, and  is  not  inserted  on  the  main  axis  of  the 
spikelet,  but  on  the  lateral  branch  which  holds 
the  flower.  It  is,  therefore,  proper  to  call  it  by 


272  EARLY   SUMMER   FLOWERS. 

a  special  name,  and,  by  analogy,  it  is  called  the 
palet  in  the  Anthoxanthum  also.1 

The  Sweet-Vernal  Grass,  then,  consists  of  one- 
flowered  spikelets  with  six  glumes  (or  five  glumes 
and  a  palet),  and  a  single,  apparently  terminal, 
flower,  with  two  stamens  and  a  one-celled  ovary. 
We  have  here  a  very  simple  flower.2  There  is 
another  sweet  grass,  Hierochloe,  used,  also,  by 
the  Indians  for  weaving  baskets,  where  each 
bract,  corresponding  to  the  inner  empty  glumes 
of  the  Anthoxanthum,  has  a  flower  in  its  axil, 
making  the  spikelet  three-flowered. 

Another  common  early-blossoming  grass  is 
the  Meadow-Foxtail  (Alopecurus  pratensis). 

1  The  view  of  Bentham,  Hackel,  and  other  authorities  is  that 
the  palet  is  a  bract  (or  two  bracts  united)  on  the  lateral  branch 
that  holds  the  flower.    The  former  view  was  that  the  palet  repre- 
sents the  outer  circle  of  the  perianth,  wrhile  the  scales  at  the 
base  of  the  stamens  (lodicules') ,  when  present,  are  the  remains  of 
an  inner  circle.     See  reference  on  p.  274. 

2  Darwin  says  in  a  letter  to  Hooker  in  1855,  four  years  before 
the  publication  of  the  Origin  of  Species.    "  I  have  just  made  out 
my  first  grass,  hurrah!  hurrah!     I  must  confess  that  fortune 
favors  the  bold,  for,  as  good  luck  would  have  it,  it  was  the  easy 
Anthoxanthum  odoratum:  nevertheless  it  is  a  great  discovery; 
I  never  expected  to  make  out  a  grass  in  my  life,  so  hurrah  !     It 
has  done  my  stomach  surprising  good."  —  Life  and  Letters  of 
Charles  Darwin.    By  Francis  Darwin.    Vol.  I,  p.  418, 


FIG.  37.  —  A.  Meadow-Foxtail  Grass  (Alopecurus  pratensis") :  1.  Flowering 
spike;  2.  Spikelet;  3.  Single  flower.  B.  Kentucky  Blue-Grass 
(Poa  pratensis') :  1.  Flowering  panicle;  2.  Spikelet;  3.  Single 
flower.  C.  Couch-Grass  (Agropyrum  repens):  1.  Flowering 
spike;  2.  Spikelet;  3.  Spikelet,  separated;  4.  Single  flower. 
D.  Sweet- Vernal  Grass  (Anthoxanthum  odoratum) :  I.  Flower- 
Ing  spike ;  2,  Spikelet,  with  the  flower  raised  from  the  gluraea. 


EARLY   SUMMER   FLOWERS.  273 

This  has  a  close,  contracted,  spike-like  cluster  of 
flowers  (Fig.  37,  A,  i).  A  single  spikelet  (A,  2) 
consists  of  three  glumes.  The  inner  flowering 
glume  has  a  long,  twisted  awn  on  the  back,  and 
encloses  the  flower.  There  are  three  stamens 
(the  usual  number  in  Orwninece),  and  an  ovary 
with  feathery  stigmas,  similar  to  that  of  Antho- 
xanthum.  There  is  no  inner  bract  opposite  the 
flowering  glume,  and,  therefore,  the  flower  is 
described  as  having  no  palet  (A,  3).  This  grass 
is  proterogynous,  the  stigmas  withering  before 
the  stamens  discharge.  It  has  a  creeping  root- 
stock,  and  leafy  culms,  and  is  a  good  grass  for 
meadows. 

A  grass  with  many  flowers  in  a  spikelet  may 
be  seen  in  our  common  Kentucky  Blue-Grass 
(Poa  pratensis) .  A  spikelet  consists  of  a  num- 
ber of  flowers  crowded  on  the  rhachis.  Each 
flower  is  enclosed  in  a  flowering  glume  and  a 
palet,  and  has  three  stamens.  The  two  glumes 
at  the  base  of  the  spikelet  are  empty  and  act 
the  part  of  an  involucre  (Fig.  37,  B,  2).  Each 
flower  has  a  tuft  of  cobwebby  hairs  at  the  base, 
which  is  not  indicated  in  the  illustration.  The 


274  EARLY   SUMMER   FLOWERS. 

plant  has  underground  runners  and  a  short 
ligule. 

Another  common  grass,  with  many-flowered 
spikelets,  is  the  troublesome  Couch-Grass  (Agro- 
2iyrum  repens).  This  grass  is  coarse  and  its 
running  rootstocks  are  difficult  to  completely 
destroy.  The  spikelets  are  two-ranked  on  the 
terminal  spike  (Fig.  37,  C,  i),  compressed  and 
sessile,  with  the  sides  against  the  axis.  Each 
flower  is  enclosed  in  a  narrow,  keeled,  rigid, 
flowering  glume,  tapering  into  a  point  or  an 
awn,  and  a  flattened,  hairy  palet,  adhering  to 
the  grain.  There  are  three  stamens.  The  two 
lower  glumes  of  the  spikelet  are  empty,  green, 
and  nerved.  The  grass  is  very  variable  and 
very  widely  spread. 

It  is  of  course  impossible  in  this  volume  to 
give  more  than  the  merest  hints  for  the  study 
of  Graminece.  The  teacher  will  find  an  excel- 
lent account  of  the  whole  family  in  The  True 
Grasses,  by  Hackel,1  and  references  to  other 

1  The  True  Grasses.  By  Eduard  Hackel.  Translated  from 
Die  Naturlichen  Planzenfamilien,  by  F.  Lamson-Scribner.  New 
York,  Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  1890. 


THE   MOEPHOLOGY   OF   THE   FLOWER.  275 

literature  on  the  subject  will  be  found  in  that 
work. 

The  grasses  are  wind-fertilized,  and  the  peri- 
anth has  been  wholly  dispensed  with,  unless  cer- 
tain scales  (lodicules),  which  are  found  in  many 
genera  at  the  bases  of  the  stamens,  represent  the 
floral  envelopes.  They  have  two-ranked  leaves, 
hollow  stems,  and  flowers  in  the  axils  of  glumes 
consisting  of  two  or  three  stamens  and  a  pistil 
with  a  one-celled  ovary,  and  a  single  suspended 
ovule.  The  two  stigmas  are  feathery  (plu- 
mose). 

The  family  Graminece  will  be  found  in  the 
glumaceous  division  of  the  monocotyledons,  where 
we  find  also  the  Sedge  family  (Cyperacece).  The 
sedges  have  three-ranked  leaves,  solid  triangular 
stems,  and  flowers  in  the  axils  of  glumes,  without 
perianth,  the  ovary  one-celled  with  a  single  erect 
ovule. 

THE  MORPHOLOGY  OF  THE  FLOWER. 

We  have  already  given  our  definition  of  a 
flower  :  "  A  flower  is  a  simple  branch  modified  for 
the  production  of  seed."  We  are  justified  in 


276  THE  MORPHOLOGY   OF  THE   FLOWER. 

assuming,  even  as  a  result  of  our  course,  short 
as  it  is,  that  the  object  of  the  flower  is  to  pro- 
duce seed,  for  we  have  seen  that  the  color  and 
fragrance,  shape  and  structure,  of  each  part  has  a 
direct  relation  to  the  fertilization  of  the  flower 
or  the  dissemination  of  the  seed. 

If  the  flower  is  a  branch,  it  follows  that  its 
organs  must  be  modified  leaves.  We  have  seen 
what  varied  forms  leaves  may  assume,  in  the 
cotyledons  of  the  Pea,  the  bud-scales  of  the  Beech, 
and  the  tendrils  of  the  Bean,  so  that  it  will  not 
surprise  us  to  find  that  the  organs  of  the  flower 
are  also  modified  leaves.1 

In  many  of  the  flowers  we  have  studied  the 
calyx  is  not  unlike  a  whorl  of  leaves.  The^epals 
of  the  Trillium,  in  texture,  color,  and  veining, 
are  almost  exactly  like  its  leaves,  and  the  petals 
are  like  the  sepals  in  shape  and  veining,  although 
they  differ  in  texture  and  color.  In  the  Bar- 
berry flower,  the  bracts  pass  into  the  sepals  in 
such  a  manner  that  it  is  rather  an  arbitrary  line 
that  we  draw  between  them. 

Externally,  the  sepals  of  the  Water-Lily  are 

1  Reader  in  Botany.     XVI. 


THE   MORPHOLOGY   OF   THE   FLOWER.  277 

not  very  unlike  leaves,  green,  shining,  and  par- 
allel veined.  We  have  just  seen  that  we  cannot 
absolutely  distinguish  sepals  from  petals,  nor 
petals  from  stamens  in  this  flower. 

The  outer  petals  are  tinged  with  green,  and 
are  thicker  and  coarser  in  texture  than  the  inner 
petals;  and,  as  they  draw  near  the  centre  of  the 
flower,  they  become  more  and  more  contracted 
and  are  tinged  with  yellow.  Some  of  them  have 
rudimentary  pollen-sacs  at  their  tips.  Through 
these  gradations  we  come  to  a  perfect  stamen, 
where  the  anther  evidently  corresponds  to  the 
tip  of  the  leaf,  and  the  filament  to  its  lower 
portion.  Here  we  have  the  clearest  evidence 
that  these  organs  are  all  modified  leaves.  As 
in  the  Lilac  bud  (Part  I,  p.  68),  we  saw  that 
there  was  no  place  where  we  could  call  one 
organ  a  leaf  and  the  next  organ  a  scale,  so  here 
there  is  no  dividing  line  between  sepal  and 
stamen. 

It  is  very  common  for  stamens  to  revert  to 
petals.  This  is  the  reason  of  the  loss  of  the 
essential  organs  in  double  flowers,  as,  for  instance, 
in  the  greenhouse  Eose.  We  can  see  examples 


278  THE  MORPHOLOGY   OF   THE   FLOWER. 

of  it  every  day  in  our  Hollyhocks,  Geraniums, 
Poppies,  and  many  other  flowers. 

The  leaf-like  character  of  the  carpels  is  gen- 
erally not  so  clear.  We  have  some  excellent  exam- 
ples in  the  Columbine  and  Caltha  pods,  which, 
in  early  summer,  will  be  ready  for  study.  After 
splitting,  they  show  their  leaf-origin  very  plainly. 
The  petal-like  stigmas  of  Iris  also  show  the  simi- 
larity of  origin  of  the  carpels  and  the  perianth. 

Another  case  in  point  is  the  reversion  of  the 
carpels  to  leaves,  which  we  noticed  in  the  Double 
Cherry,  where  the  reversion  takes  place  normally. 
Monstrosities  of  this  sort  may  occur  in  any 
flower-organs,  and  if  the  pupils  are  advised  to 
seek  them,  some  interesting  specimens  will 
probably  be  obtained.  The  study  of  monstrosi- 
ties is  called  teratology. 

A  much  better  understanding  of  the  flower  is 
gained  if  we  regard  it  from  this  point  of  view. 
Indeed,  we  may  say  that  the  whole  of  modern 
Botany  relating  to  the  Flowering  Plants  is  the 
proof  of  its  truth,  for  we  assume  it  as  the  foun- 
dation of  all  our  study.1  The  sepals,  petals, 

1  Reader  in  Botany,     XVI, 


THE   MORPHOLOGY   OF   THE  FLOWER.  279 

stamens,  and  carpels  are  modified  leaves.  In 
the  staminal  leaf  the  pollen  is  developed  in 
interior  cells,  on  either  side  of  the  connective, 
which  answers  to  the  midrib  of  the  leaf.  An- 
thers are,  therefore,  normally  two-lobed.  In  the 
carpellary  leaves  the  ovules,  in  most  cases,  are 
developed  on  the  margins.  We  may  compare 
them  with  the  buds  on  the  leaves  of  Begonia 
and  Bryophyllum.  The  pollen  and  the  ovules 
are  regarded  as  male  and  female  plants,  which 
by  their  union  produce  a  new  individual  com- 
bining the  qualities  of  both  its  parents. 

The  conception  of  the  flower  as  a  branch, 
modified  for  the  production  of  seed,  teaches  us 
that  the  showy  floral  envelopes  are  accessory 
parts.  The  flower,  if  we  use  the  term  in  its 
widest  sense,  consists  of  a  simple  axis,  bearing 
stamens,  or  carpels,  or  both.  But  when  the 
leaves  close  to  these  essential  organs  are  modified 
in  color  and  structure,  and  have  a  relation  to 
fertilization  and  dissemination,  they  are  con- 
sidered as  a  part  of  the  flower,  and  are  called 
the  perianth. 

The  most  primitive  plants  are  simple.     The 


280     THE  MORPHOLOGY  OF  THE  FLOWER. 

group  to  which  the  Willow  belongs,  containing 
amentaceous  plants,  represents  an  early  geological 
type.  The  Willow  has  two  kinds  of  flowers, 
one  consisting  of  two  stamens,  the  other  of  two 
carpels.  Each  of  these  flowers  is  subtended  by 
a  bract,  and  this  is  all  that  we  found,  except  a 
small  gland  at  the  base  of  the  essential  organs. 
Other  members  of  this  group,  as  the  Birch  and 
Elm,  have  a  calyx  surrounding  each  group  of 
stamens.  In  the  Elm,  belonging  to  a  group 
somewhat  higher  in  the  scale,  the  calyx  consists 
of  a  little  cup,  delicately  tinted  with  red. 

Looking  at  the  other  great  branch  of  the  Flow- 
ering Plants,  the  monocotyledons,  we  see  an  ex- 
tremely simple  flower  in  the  Arisaema.  The 
staminate  flowers  consist  of  two-celled  or  four- 
celled  anthers,  in  groups  of  two  or  three,  and 
the  pistil  is  syncarpous,  forming  a  few-seeded 
pod  or  berry.  These  organs  are  on  a  densely 
flowered  axis,  without  any  trace  of  perianth. 
We  can  see  a  simple  perianth  in  a  plant  belong- 
ing to  the  same  family,  the  Skunk-Cabbage  (Sym- 
plocarpus). 

We  have  studied  flowers  with  the  parts  free 


THE   MORPHOLOGY   OF   THE  FLOWER.  281 

and  separate,  like  the  Buttercup  and  Hepatica, 
which  have  bright-colored  perianths,  and  flowers 
with  the  parts  more  combined,  which  are  yet 
quite  regular  and  simple  in  structure,  like  the 
Apple,  and  other  members  of  the  Rose  family. 
Finally,  we  have  seen  the  floral  organs  modified 
into  such  wonderful  structures  as  the  flowers  of 
Milkweed  and  (among  the  monocotyledons)  of 
Orchids.  These  are  higher  forms,  developed  in 
relation  to  the  development  of  certain  insects,  in 
later  geological  times.  But,  in  these  cases,  we 
can  still  trace  the  underlying  structure  of  their 
remote  ancestors,  with  simple  and  separate  peri- 
anths. We  made  such  a  study  in  connection 
with  the  Cypripedium. 

It  would  appear  at  first  sight  that  we  have 
abandoned  the  idea  that  the  colors  and  fragrance 
of  flowers  are  intended  for  the  delight  of  man, 
and,  indeed,  we  shall  find  the  notion  that  they 
have  any  relation  to  human  pleasure  scouted  in 
the  books  of  the  day,  even  by  literary  writers, 
who  might  be  expected  to  take  a  wider  view  of 
the  matter. 

The  fact  that  the  colors  of  flowers  have  been 


282  THE   MORPHOLOGY  OF  THE   FLOWER. 

developed  to  attract  insects  does  not  explain 
why  they  are  so  adapted  to  delight  our  eyes.  In 
a  world  where  we  perceive  every  part  to  be  cor- 
related with  the  rest,  it  is  not  reasonable  to  sup- 
pose that  the  gratitude  and  reverence  that  spring 
up  so  naturally  in  our  minds  at  the  sight  of  love- 
liness are  the  only  isolated  and  meaningless  facts 
in  the  universe. 

I,  for  my  part,  believe  that  the  study  of  any 
Natural  Science  should  awaken  reverence  for  the 
mysterious  beauty  of  the  world;  and  that  the 
teacher  who  takes  no  account  of  this  sentiment 
is  throwing  away  one  of  the  chief  benefits  of  the 
study,  without  which,  as  it  appears  to  me,  it  may 
even  be  positively  hurtful  to  the  forming  char- 
acter. 

"  Flower  in  the  crannied  wall, 
I  pluck  you  out  of  the  crannies  ;  — 
Hold  you  here,  root  and  all,  in  my  hand, 
Little  flower  — but  if  I  could  understand 
What  you  are,  root  and  all,  and  all  in  all, 
I  should  know  what  God  and  man  is." 

It  is  this  spirit  that  should  inform  our  teach- 
ing, not  the  shallow  pride  of  knowledge  of  a  few 
dry  facts. 


APPENDIX. 


THE  following  schedule  is  not  intended  to  be  used  at 
first  by  the  pupils,  who  should  rather  begin  with  very 
simple  descriptions  of  the  plants  studied.  They  should 
gradually  make  their  descriptions  fuller  and  fuller  until 
they  are  acquainted  with  the  terms  necessary  for  filling 
out  this  schedule,  and  can  undertake  it  without  the  dis- 
couragement that  would  be  sure  to  ensue  if  so  many  new 
terms  were  given  at  once.  When  the  student  can  fill 
out  this  schedule  correctly  he  will  be  able  to  analyze  the 
Flowering  Plants  without  difficulty. 

A  vertical  section  is  necessary  to  determine  the  union 
of  the  different  circles  of  the  flower  (pp.  5,  6) .  To  deter- 
mine the  number  of  cells  in  the  ovary  a  cross  section 
must  be  made  (pp.  4,  5) .  A  bud  is  required  to  examine 
the  aestivation  (p.  46). 

It  is  seldom  that  the  teacher  can  provide  specimens 
with  root,  flower,  and  fruit  for  examination  in  the  school- 
room ;  but  the  pupil  should  be  made  to  understand  that 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  every  part  of  the  plant  is  highly 
desirable,  and  should  be  gained  as  far  as  possible.  In  his 
field  studies  he  should  be  taught  to  observe  the  plant  in 
all  its  stages  of  growth.  Moreover,  the  present  schedule 

283  • 


284  APPENDIX. 

being,  after  all,  a  rather  dry  view  of  the  plant,  akin  to  the 
lifeless  herbarium  specimen,  the  student  should  be  en- 
couraged to  observe  the  habits  of  the  living  plant,  to 
notice  the  insects  that  frequent  it,  its  adaptations  for 
bidden  guests,  its  contrivances  for  protection  from 
unwelcome  visitors,  its  means  of  dissemination,  its 
manner  of  growth,  the  soil  which  it  prefers,  and  many 
other  points  relating  to  its  life.  All  such  observations 
may  be  added  to  the  descriptions,  and  will  be  a  prepara- 
tion for  real  scientific  usefulness  and  a  key  to  a  never- 
failing  source  of  delight. 


SCHEDULE   FOR   PLANT-DESCRIPTION. 

ig-         f  SCIENTIFIC  .  .Gray's     Lessons,     revised     edition,      1889, 

I  COMMON.  535-539.1 

FAMILY  OR  ORDER2.  .Lessons,  529. 
HABITAT  AND  TIME  ..  Country,   state,  or  town.     Meadow,   woods, 

or  FLOWERING.3          roadsides. 
PLANT3 Height  in  feet  and  inches,  form   (as  herb, 

shrub,   tree,   vine),   duration  (as  annual, 

biennial,   perennial),    83-87.      Outlines  I, 

p.  42. 
ROOT Kind  and  shape,  65-82.     Outlines  I,  pp.  39, 

40. 

1  All  the  references  are  to  this  work,  unless  otherwise  stated.     The  numbers 
refer  to  paragraphs. 

2  The  terms  are  used  synonymously  by  Gray.     German  authors  use  the  term 
Order  to  signify  groups  of  nearly  related  families. 

3  In  the  following  schedules  these  characters  are  placed  in  a  general  account  of 
the  plant  at  the  beginning  of  each  description. 


APPENDIX.  285 


nous  type),  habit  (as  erect,  twining,  creep- 
ing, etc.),  kind  (as  scape,  rootstock,  tuber, 
etc.),  surface  (as  smooth,  rough,  hairy), 
88-117.  Outlines  I,  pp.  103-105. 

LEAVES Position,  arrangement,  type  (simple  or  com- 
pound), venation,  shape,  apex,  base,  mar- 
gin, surface,  texture,  vernation,  121-164, 
181-193.  Outlines  I,  pp.  121-126. 

PETIOLE Form  and  length. 

STIPULES Form  (describe  as  leaves),  174-180. 

INFLORESCENCE 197-227.     Outlines  II,  p.  205. 

AND  BRACTS. 

^ESTIVATION 273-280.     Outlines  II,  p.  182. 

DIAGRAMS. 

FLOWER Plan  (complete,  perfect,  regular,  etc.),   size, 

RECEPTACLE.  323-327.     Outlines  II,  p.  141. 

PERIANTH  (leaves) . . .  Term  used  to  describe  the  floral  envelopes 
when  the  calyx  and  corolla  are  not  clearly 
distinguishable.  Describe  union  of  leaves, 
number,  color,  form,  and  insertion  (hy- 
pogynous,  perigynous,  epigynous). 

CALYX  (sepals) Union  of  sepals,  insertion,  number,  and  form, 

269-271.     (Describe  sepals  as  leaves.) 

COROLLA  (petals) Union   of   petals,   insertion,  number,    color, 

and  form,  248-271.  (Describe  petals  as 
leaves.) 

STAMENS Number,  union,  insertion,  etc.,  281-285.  Out- 
lines II,  pp.  57-64. 

FILAMENTS Length,  form,  etc.,  286. 

ANTHERS Form,  insertion  (basifixed,  dorsifixed,  adnate, 

innate),  position  (as  introrse,  extrorse,  ver- 
satile), number  of  cells,  and  dehiscence, 
287-299.  Outlines  II,  pp.  59-64. 


286  APPENDIX. 

PISTIL Simple  or  compound,  number  and  union  of 

carpels,  300-316.    Outlines  II,  pp.  81-86. 

OVARY Adnation  (superior,  inferior),  form,  number 

of  ceils,  placentation,  number  and  position 
of  ovules,  306-312,  317-322. 

STYLE Number,  length,  form,  etc.,  302. 

STIGMA Number,  form,  position,  302. 

FRUIT Character  (simple,  multiple,  aggregate),  texture 

(dry,  fleshy),  kind  (berry,  drupe,  capsule), 
345-379.     Outlines  II,  pp.  142-150. 

SEEDS Number,  form,  number  of  cotyledons,  presence 

or  absence  of  endosperm  (albumen),  380- 
392.     Outlines  II,  p.  226. 

REMARKS Any  striking  peculiarities  of  the  plant,  adap- 
tations for  cross-fertilization,  or  uses  in 
commerce. 

Almost  all  of  the  following  descriptions  have  been  made  by  the 
author  from  fresh  specimens,  and  her  work  has  been  checked  and 
supplemented  by  suggestions  from  Gray's  Manual,  Torrey's  Flora 
of  New  York,  and  other  systematic  works.  Most  of  the  measure- 
ments have  been  taken  from  the  two  Flora  above  mentioned. 

To  make  an  accurate  description,  not  of  a  single  individual  only, 
but  of  a  whole  species,  is  a  matter  of  no  small  difficulty ;  and  the 
author  is  quite  aware  that  many  characters  which  are  here  repre- 
sented as  constant  must  be  extremely  variable.  She  earnestly 
requests  that  any  mistakes  or  omissions  may  be  brought  to  her 
notice. 

NOTE.  —  There  are  numerous  Plant  records  published,  in  the  form  of  books  to 
hold  descriptions  and  of  blanks  with  printed  headings.  One  of  the  simplest  and 
best  of  these  is  by  Edward  T.  Nelson,  and  is  published  by  Allyn  &  Bacon,  Boston. 
It  consists  of  four-page  blanks,  with  headings  nearly  as  in  the  above  schedule, 
and  a  prefatory  leaflet  containing  a  list  of  botanical  terms  and  some  directions 
for  pressing,  mounting,  and  collecting.  The  description  is  on  the  first  page,  and 
the  specimen  is  to  be  mounted  on  the  third  page.  The  whole  is  enclosed  in  a 
portfolio,  and  the  price  is  seventy -five  cents,  postpaid. 


APPENDIX.  287 

TULIPA  GESNERIANA.     Tulip. 

Family  LILIACE^E. 

An  early  bulbous  perennial,  cultivated  for  its  showy  flowers. 
Height,  1  foot.    Spring.    Native  of  the  Levant. 

ROOT  Of  clustered  fibres. 

STEM   Monocotyledonous     type,     bulbous,     erect, 

fleshy,  smooth,  generally  two- leaved  above 
the  ground. 

LEAVES  Alternate,  simple,  parallel- veined,  ovate  or 

oblong,  apex  acute,  base  clasping,  entire, 
smooth,  fleshy,  clasping  in  the  bud. 

PETIOLE None. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flower  large,  solitary,  terminal,  erect.  Bracts 

AND  BRACTS.  like  the  leaves. 

^ESTIVATION Imbricated.     (See  diagrams  on  pp.  3  and  5.) 

FLOWER Complete,  regular,  symmetrical. 

RECEPTACLE  ....  Flat. 

PERIANTH  (leaves) . .  .Leaves  separate  (polyphyllous} ,  free,  6,  ovate, 
apex  retuse  or  rounded,  the  three  inner 
(petals)  smaller.  Colors  various. 

CALYX  (sepals) 

COROLLA  (petals) 

STAMENS   6,  distinct,  hypogynous. 

FILAMENTS   Short,  awl- shaped. 

ANTHERS Basifixed,  two-celled,  dehiscence  longitudinal. 

PISTIL Compound,  3  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY Superior,  triangular,  columnar,  three-celled, 

central  placenta,  many  ovules  in  two  rows 
in  each  cell. 

STYLE None. 

STIGMA Three-parted,  crested. 


288  APPENDIX. 

FRUIT A  capsule,  loculicidal. 

SEEDS Many,  monocotyledonous,  albuminous. 

REMARKS Kerner  states  that  the  nectar  is  contained  in 

the  bases  of  the  filaments  (1). 

HYACINTHUS   ORIENT ALIS.     Hyacinth. 

Family  LILIACE^E. 

An  early  bulbous  perennial,  cultivated  for  ornament. 
Height,  1  foot.     Spring.     Native  of  the  Levant. 

ROOT Fibrous. 

STEM  Monocotyledonous  type,  not  continued  be- 
yond the  bulb. 

LEAVES  Radical,  simple,  parallel-veined,   lanceolate, 

acute,  entire,  smooth,  fleshy. 

PETIOLE None. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  in  a  terminal  raceme,  on  a  thick, 

AND  BRACTS.  fleshy  scape.     Pedicels  very  short.     Bracts 

small,  lanceolate  or  awl-shaped,  or  none. 

^ESTIVATION Imbricated. 

FLOWER Complete,  regular,  symmetrical. 

RECEPTACLE  . . .  .Flat. 

PERIANTH  (leaves) . . .  Bell-shaped,  contracted  at  the  throat,  free, 
six-lobed,  divisions  oblong,  the  inner 
narrower. 

CALYX  (sepals) • 

COROLLA  (petals) 

STAMENS   6,  distinct,  on  perianth. 

FILAMENTS   Very   short,   broad,    closing    the    throat    of 

perianth. 

ANTHERS Dorsifixed,   introrse,  two-celled,    dehiscence 

longitudinal. 
PISTIL 3  carpels,  syncarpous. 


APPENDIX.  289 

OVARY Superior,  three-celled,  central  placenta,  many 

ovules,  anatropous,  horizontal. 

STYLE Short,  ridged. 

STIGMA Terminal,  three-lobed  or  parted. 

FRUIT A  capsule,  triangular. 

SEEDS Few,  monocotyledonous,  albuminous. 

REMARKS Flowers  very  fragrant. 

CROCUS   VERNUS.    Crocus. 

Family  IRIDACE.E. 

An  early  bulbous  perennial,  cultivated  for  ornament. 
Height,  6  inches.     Spring.    Native  of  Europe. 

ROOT A  cluster  of  fibres. 

STEM  Monocotyledonous  type,  a  corm. 

LEAVES  Radical,  simple,  parallel-veined,   lanceolate, 

fleshy,     smooth,     midrib    white,     margin 
revolute  until  after  flowering. 

PETIOLE None. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  terminal,  and  in  the  axils  of  the  thin 

AND  BRACTS.  papery  bracts  which   sheathe    the  whole 

season' s  growth.  Each  flower  also  sheathed 
by  bracts. 

^ESTIVATION Imbricated. 

FLOWER Complete,  regular,  symmetrical. 

PERIANTH  (leaves) . . .  Trumpet-shaped,  base  of  tube  adnate  to 
ovary,  six-cleft,  tube  long  and  slender, 
partially  underground,  lobes  ovate,  obtuse. 

CALYX  (sepals) 

COROLLA  (petals) 

STAMENS 3,  distinct,  .adnate  to  perianth  and  opposite 

its  outer  divisions. 
FILAMENTS   Short. 


290  APPENDIX. 

ANTHERS Dorsifixed,     oblong,     extrorse,     two-celled, 

dehiscence  longitudinal. 

PISTIL 8  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY Inferior,   three-celled,   placentation    central, 

many  ovules  in  two  rows. 

STYLE Long  and  slender. 

STIGMA Three-parted,  fringed,  and  petal-like. 

FRUIT A  three-valved  capsule,  appearing  above  the 

surface  of  the  ground. 

SEEDS Many,  monocotyledonous,  albuminous. 

REMARKS Saffron  is  obtained  from  the  stigma  of  an- 
other species,  Crocus  sativus. 

GALANTHUS   NIVAL.IS.    Snowdrop. 

Family  AMARYLLIDACE^E. 

An  early  bulbous  perennial,  cultivated  for  ornament. 
Height,  6  to  9  inches.    Spring.    Native  of  Great  Britain. 

ROOT   Fibrous. 

STEM Monocotyledonous  type,  not  prolonged  above 

the  bulb. 

LEAVES Radical,  simple,  parallel -veined,  linear,  ob- 
tuse, entire,  smooth,  fleshy,  a  single  pair, 
enclosed  in  a  scaly  sheath. 

PETIOLE None. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  terminal,  solitary,  nodding  from  a 

AND  BRACTS.  cleft  bract. 

^ESTIVATION Outer    leaves    imbricated,   inner    convolute. 

(See  diagram  on  p.  12.) 

FLOWER Complete,  regular,  symmetrical. 

RECEPTACLE  . . .  .Enclosing  the  ovary. 

PERIANTH  (leaves). .  .6  separate  leaves  on  an  epigynous  disk,  3 
outer  leaves,  white,  ovate,  concave,  3  inner 


APPENDIX.  291 

half  as  long,  striped  within  and  spotted 
without  with  green,  notched  at  apex. 

CALYX  (sepals)  

COROLLA  (petals) .... 

STAMENS 6,  distinct,  on  an  epigynous  disk. 

FILAMENTS   Very  short. 

ANTHERS Long,  pointed,  ending  in  a  horn-like,  reflexed 

process,  basifixed,  two-celled,  dehiscing  by 
two  slits  at  the  apex,  sometimes  splitting 
throughout  the  whole  length. 

PISTIL   .3  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY Inferior,   three-celled,   placentation   central, 

ovules  many. 

STYLE Simple,  slender,  pointed. 

STIGMA Terminal. 

FRUIT A  capsule. 

SEEDS  . . . , Monocotyledonous,  albuminous. 

REMARKS The  nectar  is  contained  in  the  green  spots  on 

the  petals.  The  pollen  falls  out  of  the  slits  of 
the  anthers  when  an  insect  shakes  them  by 
touching  the  horn-like  processes,  dusts  the 
bee  visiting  the  flower  for  nectar  or  pollen, 
and  is  carried  to  the  next  flower. 

TROP^OLUM   MAJUS.    Gar  den- Nasturtium. 

Family  GERANIACE^). 
An  annual  herb,  with  pungent  juice,  climbing  by  its  leaf -stalks, 

cultivated  for  ornament. 
Height,  6  feet.     Flowering  in  Summer.     Native  of  South  America. 

ROOT   Of  fleshy  fibres. 

STEM    Climbing,  weak,  round,  smooth. 

LEAVES  Alternate,    simple,    palmate-veined,    shield- 
shaped,    margin    slightly    wavy,    smooth 


292  APPENDIX. 

above,  minutely  downy  beneath,  thin, 
vernation  open. 

PETIOLE Long,  round,  smooth,  twining. 

STIPULES None,  or  minute. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  solitary  in  the  axils.     Bracts  none. 

AND  BRACTS. 

^ESTIVATION Imbricated.     (See  diagram  on  p.  28,  Fig.  5. ) 

FLOWER Complete,  regular. 

KECEPTACLE Flat. 

PERIANTH  (leaves) . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Gamosepalous,  free,   five-cleft,   three  upper 

sepals  prolonged  backward  into  a  long  de- 
scending spur,  colored. 

COROLLA  (petals) Polypetalous,  5  petals,  adnate  to  calyx,  the 

three  lower  petals  at  the  base,  the  two 
upper  higher  up,  three  lower  with  claws, 
fringed,  two  upper  wedge-obovate. 

STAMENS   8,  distinct,  adnate  to  receptacle. 

FILAMENTS  ......  Short,  unequal,  awl-shaped. 

ANTHERS Erect,  basifixed,  two-celled,  dehiscence  lon- 
gitudinal. 

PISTIL 3  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY Superior,  deeply  three-lobed  around  the  base 

of  the  style,  one  ovule  in  each  cell,  pen- 
dulous. 

STYLE Three-lobed. 

STIGMAS 3,  terminating  the  branches  of  the  style. 

FRUIT Splitting  into  three  closed,  one-seeded,  ribbed 

carpels. 

SEEDS Generally    three,     dicotyledonous,     exalbu- 

minous. 

KEMARKS The  stamens  mature  one  at  a  time,  and  in  a 

definite  order,  7,  2,  4,  8,  5,  3,  6,  1.  In 
some  flowers  the  numbers  go  from  right  to 
left,  in  others  from  left  to  right. 


APPENDIX.  293 


PELARGONIUJI    ZONALE.     House-Geranium. 

Family  GERANIACEA:. 

A  shrubby  perennial,  cultivated  in  house  and  garden. 
Native  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

ROOT    Fibrous. 

STEM   Exogenous,   woody   at    base,    erect,    fleshy, 

downy. 

LEAVES Alternate  and  opposite,  simple,  palmate- 
veined,  kidney-shaped,  margin  wavy, 
crenate,  downy,  thick. 

PETIOLE Round,  hairy. 

STIPULES Adnate  to  stem,  becoming  scaly. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers   in  terminal   cymes,  united  into  a 

AND  BRACTS.  single  thick  compound  cluster,  becoming 

apparently  lateral  by  the  stronger  growth 
of  the  adjacent  leaf-bud.  Clusters  sur- 
rounded by  scaly  bracts. 

^ESTIVATION Calyx  imbricated,  corolla  convolute. 

FLOWER Complete,  slightly  irregular,  symmetrical. 

RECEPTACLE  ....  Prolonged  into  a  column,  around  which  the 

carpels  cohere. 
PERIANTH  (leaves)  . .  . 

CALYX  (sepals)   Polysepalous,  free,  sepals  5,  lanceolate,  the 

two  upper  slightly  larger  and  adnate  to  the 
pedicel  below,  forming  a  concealed  spur. 

COROLLA  (petals) Polypetalous,  hypogynous,  petals  5,  rounded, 

wedge-shaped  at  base,  two  upper  with  short 
white  claws. 

STAMENS 10,    distinct,    hypogynous.      Stamens    with 

anthers  usually  only  7. 

FILAMENTS Monadelphous. 

ANTHERS Red,  dorsifixed,  introrse,   dehiscence  longi- 
tudinal. 


294  APPENDIX. 

PISTIL 5  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY Superior,  carpels  one-ovuled. 

STYLES 5,  united  around  the  receptacular  column. 

STIGMAS 5,    stiginatic   on    the    inner  surface   of    the 

styles. 

FRUIT Carpels  splitting  elastically  from  the  central 

column,  hairy  within,  spirally  twisted  in 
the  middle,  with  a  straight  beak. 

SEEDS 5,  dicotyledonous,  exalbuminous. 

REMARKS Seeds  partially  self-planting. 


FUCHSIA   COCCINEA. 

Family  ONAGRACE^E. 

A  showy  cultivated  perennial,  with  opposite  leaves,  and  hanging 

red  and  purple  flowers. 

Native  of  South  America. 

ROOT   Fibrous. 

STEM    Exogenous,  woody,  climbing. 

LEAVES   Opposite,  simple,  pinnate-veined,  lance-ovate, 

apex  acute,  base  heart-shaped  or  obtuse, 
serrate  with  blunt  teeth,  smooth. 

PETIOLE Channelled,  red. 

STIPULES Minute. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers   solitary,   nodding    from    the  axils. 

AND  BRACTS.  Peduncles  long  and  slender.     Bracts  none. 

^ESTIVATION Calyx  valvate,  corolla  convolute. 

FLOWER Complete,  regular,  symmetrical. 

PERIANTH  (leaves) . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Gamosepalous,   adnate  to  ovary,   five-cleft, 

lobes  lanceolate,  as  long  as  the  straight 
round  tube,  which  is  much  prolonged  above 
the  ovary,  generally  light-colored. 


APPENDIX.  295 

COROLLA  (petals)  ....  Polypetalous,  inserted  on  the  calyx,  petals 
4,  red  or  purple,  wedge-obovate  or  round, 
shorter  than  calyx  lobes. 

STAMENS 8,  distinct,  exserted,  on  the  calyx. 

FILAMENTS Unequal,  slender,  red. 

ANTHERS Adnate,     introrse,     two-celled,     dehiscence 

longitudinal. 

PISTIL 4  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY  . . , Inferior,  four-celled,  central  placenta  ;  ovules 

many  in  three  rows. 

STYLE Long,  exserted,  slender. 

STIGMA Terminal,  club-shaped,  four-lobed. 

FRUIT A  berry. 

SEEDS Many,  dicotyledonous,  exalbuminous. 

REMARKS Nectar  in  the  throat  of  the  tube. 

ABUTILON   STRIATUM.     Indian  Mallow. 

Family  MALVACEAE. 

A  shrub,   cultivated  for  ornament,  with  alternate  heart-shaped 
leaves,  and  axillary,  bell-shaped,  pendent  flowers,  the  typical 
flowers  reddish  orange,  veined  with  darker  lines. 
Native  of  Brazil. 

ROOT    Fibrous. 

STEM    Woody,  erect,  branched. 

LEAVES    Alternate,     simple,     pinnate- veined,     ovate, 

apex  acuminate  or  three-lobed,  base  heart- 
shaped,  crenate,  thin,  smooth. 

PETIOLE Downy,  short,  round. 

STIPULES Lateral,  on  the  stem. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  solitary,  pendent  from  the  axils. 

AND  BRACTS. 

^ESTIVATION Calyx  valvate,  corolla  convolute. 

FLOWER Complete,  regular,  symmetrical. 


296  APPENDIX. 

PERIANTH  (leaves)  . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Gamosepalous,    free,    five-cleft,    inflated,   a 

little  contracted  at  the  throat,  lobes  pointed, 
three-nerved,  downy. 

COROLLA  (petals) ....  Polypetalous,    hypogynous,    5,    round    with 
claws;  veiny. 

STAMENS   Many,  united,  joined  to  base  of  petals. 

FILAMENTS Monadelphous,  separating  into   a  cluster  of 

anther-bearing  filaments. 

ANTHERS One-celled,  basifixed,  heart-shaped,  dehiscing 

round  the  margin. 

PISTIL 10  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY  Superior,   ten-celled,  with  a  single  row  of 

seeds  in  each  cell,  placentation  central. 

STYLE Ten-parted,  slender. 

STIGMAS Terminal. 

FRUIT A  capsule,  separating  into  two  to  nine-seeded 

carpels. 

SEEDS Many,  dicotyledonous,  scantily  albuminous. 

REMARKS Nectar  at  the  base  of  the  calyx  tube. 


RHODODENDRON   INDICUM.     Azalea. 

Family  ERICACE^. 

A  shrub,  cultivated  for  ornament,  with  alternate  leaves  crowded  on 

the  ends  of  the  shoots,  and  terminal  flowers  with  scaly  bracts. 

Native  of  China. 

ROOT    Fibrous. 

STEM    Woody,  erect,  bristly  with  rusty  hairs. 

LEAVES  Alternate,  simple,  pinnate  and  netted  veined, 

oblanceolate,  obtuse,  tipped  with  a  short, 
blunt  point,  entire,  hairy,  revolute  in  the 
bud. 


APPENDIX.  297 

PETIOLE None. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  in  terminal,   scaly- bracted  clusters. 

AND  BRACTS.  Peduncle  short,  covered  with  sticky,  glan- 

dular hairs. 

.^ESTIVATION Calyx  and  corolla  imbricated,  corolla  ribbed. 

FLOWER Complete,  slightly  irregular,  symmetrical. 

PERIANTH  (leaves)  . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Polysepalous,  free,  sepals  5,  lanceolate,  glan- 
dular hairy. 

COROLLA  (petals) Gamopetalous,  hypogynous,  slightly  irregular, 

trumpet-shaped,  five-cleft,  lobes  oval,  ob- 
tuse or  retuse,  variously  colored. 

STAMENS    10,  distinct,  hypogynous. 

FILAMENTS Slender,  long,  turning  upward. 

ANTHER Dorsifixed,    introrse,    two-celled,    dehiscing 

from  a  pore  at  the  apex  of  each  cell. 

PISTIL 5  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY Glandular  hairy,  five-celled,  central  placenta- 

tion,  placentae  projecting  back    into    the 
cells  ;  ovules  many. 

STYLE Exserted,  at  first  declined. 

STIGMA Capitate. 

FRUIT •. . 

SEEDS  

REMARKS 

BEGONIA  SEMPERFLORENS. 

Family  BEGONIACE^E. 

A  cultivated  perennial,  with  oblique,  shining  leaves,  and  white  or 
rose-colored  flowers  of  two  kinds  on  the  same  plant. 

Native  of  Brazil. 
ROOT    .  . .  Fibrous. 


298  APPENDIX. 

STEM   Round,  smooth,  fleshy. 

LEAVES  Alternate,  simple,  pinnate-veined,  base  ob- 
lique, apex  pointed,  entire,  shining,  smooth, 
with  a  bloom  beneath. 

PETIOLE Thick,  smooth,  channelled. 

STIPULES Thin,  adnate  to  stem. 

INFLORESCENCE    Terminal   and  axillary  cymose   clusters  on 

AND  BRACTS.  long  peduncles.  Staminate  flowers  terminal 

and  regular,  pistillate  flowers  lateral  and 
oblique.  Bracts  small,  scaly. 

ESTIVATION   Staminate  flowers  valvate,  pistillate  flowers 

imbricated.     (See  diagram  on  p.  54,  Fig.  6.) 

FLOWER Incomplete,    monoecious,   Staminate   flowers 

first  developing. 

PERIANTH  (leaves) . .  .Staminate  flowers  of  four  separate  leaves,  in 
two  circles,  the  outer  broadly  ovate,  the 
inner  smaller,  pistillate  flowers  of  five  or 
six  separate  leaves,  adnate  to  ovary. 

CALYX  (sepals) 

COROLLA  (petals) .... 

STAMENS   Many,  distinct,  in  a  head. 

FILAMENTS Short,  unequal. 

ANTHERS Innate,  connective     very    large,    two-celled, 

dehiscence  longitudinal. 

PISTIL 3  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY Inferior,    three-lobed,   the    lobes    unequally 

winged,  three-celled,  central  placentation, 
the  placentae  projecting  far  back  into  the 
cells  ;  ovules  many,  small. 

STYLES 3,  two-parted. 

STIGMAS Horseshoe  shaped,  spiral. 

FRUIT A  capsule. 

SEEDS Many,  dicotyledonous,  exalbuminous. 

REMARKS    . 


APPENDIX.  299 

HEPATICA    TRILOBA. 

Family  RANUNCULACE^E. 

A  perennial  herb,  common,  leaves  radical,  the  delicate  blue,  pinkish, 
or  white  flowers  appearing  before  the  leaves  in  the  centre  of  the 
cluster  of  dry  leaves  of  the  previous  season. 

Height,  6  inches.     Flowering  in  April,  in  open  woods. 

ROOT    Of  coarse  fibres. 

STEM    A  short,  underground  rootstock. 

LEAVES   Radical,  simple,  palmate  and  netted  veined, 

kidney-shaped,  palmately  three-lobed,  en- 
tire, silky  beneath,  involute  in  the  bud. 

PETIOLE Covered  with  silky  hairs. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE  ......  Flowers  solitary  on  hairy  scapes,  in  the  axils 

AND  BRACTS.  of  underground  bracts  which  sheathe  the 

whole  season's  growth.     Involucre  of  three 
bracts,  close  to  the  flower,  imitating  a  calyx. 

^ESTIVATION Imbricated. 

FLOWER Incomplete,  regular. 

RECEPTACLE  ....  Conical. 
PERIANTH  (leaves)  . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Polysepalous,  free,  sepals  6  or  7,  petal-like, 

oblong. 

COROLLA  (petals) None. 

STAMENS   Many,  distinct,  on  receptacle. 

FILAMENTS Unequal,  the  outer  shorter. 

ANTHERS  Innate,  two-celled,  dehiscence  longitudinal. 

PISTIL Apocarpous,  carpels  many,  in  a  head. 

OVARY  Hairy,  acuminate,  an  akene  ;  ovule  suspended, 

anatropous. 

STYLE None. 

STIGMA Sessile,  pointed. 


300  APPENDIX. 

FRUIT A  head  of  akenes. 

SEEDS Suspended,  dicotyledonous,  albuminous. 

REMARKS    .  .  .The  flower  has  110  nectar. 


ANEMONE   NEMOROSA.     Wood-Anemone.    Wind-Flower. 

Family  RANUNCULACE^E. 

A  very  delicate  and  pretty  perennial  herb,  open  woods,  common, 

flower  nodding  on  a  peduncle  from  a  three-leaved  involucre. 

Height,  3  to  8  inches.     Flowering  in  early  Spring. 

ROOT    Fibrous. 

STEM    A    filiform  underground  rootstock,   2   to   3 

inches  long. 

LEAVES   Radical,  palmately    three-parted,  leaflets  3, 

wedge-oval,  toothed  and  cut,  sometimes 
five-parted,  stem  leaves  similar,  forming  a 
three-leaved  involucre. 

PETIOLE Round,  hairy. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  solitary,  terminal;  peduncle  about 

AND  BRACTS.  as  long  as  the  involucre. 

^ESTIVATION Imbricated.     (See  diagram  on  p.  68,  Fig.  8.) 

FLOWER Incomplete,  perfect,  regular,  1  inch  broad. 

PERIANTH  (leaves). . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Polysepalous,  free,  sepals  5  or  6,  oval,  white, 

often  tinged  with  pink. 
COROLLA  (petals) ....  None. 

STAMENS  Many,  distinct,  hypogynous. 

FILAMENTS   Unequal,  the  outer  shorter. 

ANTHERS Innate,  two-celled,  dehiscence  longitudinal. 

PISTIL Apocarpous,  carpels  many,  in  a  head. 

OVARY   An  akene,  with  a  hooked  beak ;  ovule  sus- 
pended, anatropous. 


APPENDIX.  301 

STYLE None. 

STIGMA Bent,  pointed. 

FRUIT A  head  of  akenes. 

SEEDS Suspended,  dicotyledonous,  albuminous. 

REMARKS  . .  .  .The  flower  has  no  nectar. 


CALTHA   PALUSTRIS.     Marsh-Marigold.     Cowslip. 

Family  RANUNCULACEJE. 

A  perennial  herb,  with  showy  yellow  flowers,   swamps,  common 

northward. 
Height,  6  to  10  inches.     Spring. 

ROOT Of  coarse,  clustered  fibres. 

STEM    Erect  and  branching,   hollow,   ribbed,   and 

smooth. 

LEAVES   Radical  leaves  heart-shaped,  toothed,  2  to  4 

inches  broad.  Stem  leaves  alternate, 
simple,  palmately-veined,  heart-shaped  or 
kidney-shaped,  crenate,  smooth. 

PETIOLE Long  in  the  radical  leaves,  short  in  the  stem 

leaves. 

STIPULES Adnate  to  stem,  thin,  papery. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers    in     the    upper    axils,     somewhat 

AND  BRACTS.  corymbose. 

FLOWER Incomplete,  perfect,  regular,  1  inch  or  more 

across. 
PERIANTH  (leaves) . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Polysepalous,  free,  sepals  5  to  9,  broadly  oval 

or  ovate,  yellow. 
COROLLA  (petals) ...  None. 

STAMENS    Many,  distinct,  free. 

FILAMENTS   Unequal,  the  outer  shorter. 

ANTHERS Innate,  two-celled,  dehiscence  longitudinal. 


302  APPENDIX. 

PISTIL Apocarpous,  carpels  5  to  10  in  a  hoad. 

OVARY One-celled,  many  seeded  ;  ovules  horizontal, 

anatropous. 

STYLE None. 

STIGMA  ...    Beaked. 

FRUIT A  head  of  follicles,  spreading  widely  open 

when  ripe,  sometimes  resembling  a  flower 
after  the  discharge  of  the  seeds. 

SEEDS Oblong,  purple,  dicotyledonous,  albuminous. 

REMARKS    Sometimes  used  for  "  greens  "  in  spring. 


THAL.ICTRUM  DIOICUM.    Meadow-Rue. 

Family  RANUNCULACE^E. 

A  perennial  herb,  with  decompound  leaves,  and  dioecious  panicles 

of  purplish  or  greenish  flowers,  rocky  woods,  common. 

Height,  1  to  2  feet.    April,  May. 

ROOT    Clustered  woody  fibres. 

STEM Slender,  branched,  smooth. 

LEAVES  Alternate,    ternately    decompound,    leaflets 

drooping,    three-lobed,   crenate,   rounded, 
smooth,  glaucous. 

PETIOLE Dilated  at  base,  sheathing,  both  divisions  and 

leaflets  stalked. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  in  terminal  panicles,  dioecious. 

AND  BRACTS. 

^ESTIVATION Imbricated. 

FLOWER Incomplete,  regular. 

RECEPTACLE  .... 
PERIANTH  (leaves)  . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Polysepalous,    free,    4    or    5    sepals,    oval, 

caducous. 


APPENDIX.  303 

COROLLA  (petals) None. 

STAMENS   Many,  distinct,  free. 

FILAMENTS    Exserted,  capillary,  filiform,  weak. 

ANTHERS  Nodding,  linear,  mucronate,  two-celled,  de- 

hiscence  longitudinal. 
PISTIL    6  to  10  carpels,  apocarpous. 

OVARY One-celled,  one-ovuled  ;  ovules  anatropous. 

STYLE    Longer  than  the  ovary. 

STIGMA Long,  linear,  one-sided. 

FRUIT An  akene,  ovoid,  ribbed,  pointed. 

SEEDS 1,  dicotyledonous,  albuminous. 

REMARKS A  wind-fertilized  flower,  without  nectar  or 

bright  color. 


SANGUINARIA   CANADENSIS.     Blood-Root. 

Family  PAPAVERACE^E. 

A  perennial  herb,  with  radical  leaves  and  pure  white  flowers  on 
naked  scapes,  from  a  thick  rootstock  filled  with  orange-red  juice, 
rich  woods,  common. 

Height,  3  to  8  inches.     Early  Spring. 

ROOT Fibrous. 

STEM    An   underground,  creeping  rootstock,  thick 

and  fleshy,  filled  with  orange-red  juice. 

LEAVES  Radical,  simple,  palmate- veined,  kidney- 
shaped,  deeply  seven-lobed,  lobes  dentate, 
dark  green  above,  whitish  beneath,  involute 
and  inclosing  the  flower  in  the  bud. 

PETIOLE Thick  and  fleshy,  with  orange-red  juice. 

STIPULES  None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  generally  solitary,  enclosed  with  the 

AND  BRACTS.  leaf  in  sheathing  bracts,  which  are  almost 

entirely  beneath  the  ground. 


304  APPENDIX. 

FLOWER Complete,    regular,    symmetrical,    1    to    1| 

inches  wide. 
PERIANTH  (leaves) . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Polysepalous,  free,  sepals  2,  ovate,  fugacious. 

COROLLA  (petals) ....  Polypetalous,  free,  petals  8  to  12,  oblong, 
white,  in  two  circles,  the  inner  petals  a 
little  smaller. 

STAMENS   Many,  distinct,  free. 

FILAMENTS    Unequal,  the  outer  shorter. 

ANTHERS Linear,    innate,    two-celled,  dehiscence   lon- 
gitudinal. 

PISTIL    . . . . , 2  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY One-celled,  2  parietal  placentae  ;  ovules  many, 

anatropous. 

STYLE Very  short. 

STIGMAS 2,  united,  thick. 

FRUIT An  oblong  pod,  two-valved,  the  valves  split- 
ting away  from  the  persistent  placentae. 

SEEDS Thick,  with  a  crested  rhaphe,  dicotyledonous, 

albuminous. 

REMARKS The  plant  bleeds  when  broken.    The  root  is 

used  as  an  emetic. 

CLAYTONIA  VIRGINICA.     Spring  Beauty. 

Family  PORTULACACE^. 

A  delicate,  low  perennial  herb,  flowers  bell  shaped,  nodding,  veined 
with  rose-pink,  moist  and  low  grounds,  common  westward  and 
southward. 

Height,  6  to  10  inches.     Spring. 

ROOT   Fibrous. 

STEM    Simple,  from  a  small  deep  tuber. 

LEAVES    One  pair  of  opposite  leaves,  pinnate- veined j 

2  to  4  inches  long,  simple,  linear-lanceolate, 

entire,  thick,  smooth. 


APPENDIX.  305 

PETIOLE None,    or    lower    leaves    contracted    into   a 

petiole. 

i        STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  in  a  loose  raceme.     Bracts  small. 

AND  BRACTS. 

^ESTIVATION    Imbricated. 

FLOWER Complete,  regular,  symmetrical. 

PERIANTH  (leaves)  . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Polysepalous,  free,  sepals  2,  broadly  ovate. 

COROLLA  (petals) Polypetalous,  free,  petals  5,  oval,  obtuse  or 

acute,  with  claws,  pink,  with  rose-colored 
veining,  a  yellow  spot  at  base. 

STAMENS   5,  distinct,  opposite  the  petals. 

FILAMENTS    Flat,  joined  to  base  of  petals. 

ANTHERS Dorsifixed,  extrorse,   two-celled,   dehiscence 

longitudinal. 

PISTIL 3  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY  One-celled,    ovules    rising    from    the    base, 

stalked,  campy lotropous. 

STYLE Three-cleft. 

STIGMA Stigmatic  on  the  inside  of  the  divisions. 

FRUIT A  pod,  three-valved,  3  to  6  seeded. 

SEEDS Black,  shining,  dicotyledonous,  albuminous. 

REMARKS Stamens  maturing  first,   and  turning  back 

against  the  petals  when  the  branches  of 
the  style  open  (proterandrous). 

TRIENTALIS   AMERICANA.     Star-Flower. 

Family  PRIMULACE.E. 

A  perennial  herb,  with  a  simple,  erect  stem  bearing  a  whorl  of 
leaves  at  the  top,  and  small,  white  flowers,  solitary  or  several 
from  the  leaf-axils,  moist  woods. 

Height,  9  inches.     May. 


306  APPENDIX. 

ROOT Fibrous. 

STEM    A  slender,  creeping  rootstock,  throwing  up 

simple,  erect  branches. 

LEAVES   Lower    leaves    small,    scale-like,    scattered ; 

upper  leaves  crowded  or  in  a  whorl  at  the 
summit,  pinnate-veined,  lanceolate,  taper- 
ing at  both  ends,  finely  serrate,  thin, 
veiny. 

PETIOLE None. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  solitary  or  few  from  the  whorl  of 

AND  BRACTS.  leaves,  peduncle  very  slender. 

^ESTIVATION Imbricated. 

FLOWER Complete,  regular,  symmetrical. 

RECEPTACLE  . . .  .Flat. 
PERIANTH  (leaves) ... 

CALYX  (sepals) Gamosepalous,     6    to    8    parted,    divisions 

pointed. 

COROLLA  (petals) ....  Gamopetalous,    hypogynous,   6  to  8  parted, 
flat,  spreading,  ovate  with  acuminate  tips. 

STAMENS   6  to  8,  united,  on  corolla,  and  opposite  its 

lobes. 

FILAMENTS Smooth,  slender,  monadelphous  at  base. 

ANTHERS Oblong,  two-celled,  dehiscence  longitudinal, 

revolute  after  flowering. 

PISTIL Syncarpous. 

OVARY Superior,  one-celled,  free  central  placenta ; 

ovules  amphitropous. 

STYLE 1,  slender. 

STIGMA 1,  terminal. 

FRUIT A  capsule,  globose,  dehiscing  by  valves. 

SEEDS Few,    dark,    rough,    dicotyledonous,    albu- 
minous. 
REMARKS . . 


APPENDIX.  307 

EPIG^EA   REPENS.     Trailing  Arbutus.     Mayflower. 

Family  ERICACEAE. 

A  prostrate,  evergreen,  perennial  plant,  with  alternate  leaves  and 
fragrant  rose-colored  and  white  flowers  in  terminal  clusters, 
sandy  woods. 

April,  May. 

ROOT Fibrous,  at  the  joints  of  the  stem. 

STEM Prostrate  or  trailing,  running  underground, 

somewhat  woody,  rusty -hairy. 

LEAVES Alternate,  simple,  pinnate-veined,  ovate,  base 

heart-shaped,  evergreen,  thick,  and  leathery. 

PETIOLE Slender. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  in  terminal  clusters,  each  flower  sur- 

AND  BRACTS.  rounded  with  an  involucre  ;  peduncle  short 

and  hairy  ;  buds  formed  during  the  previous 
summer,  scaly. 

^ESTIVATION Imbricated.    (See  diagrams  on  p.  88,  Fig.  10). 

FLOWER Complete,  regular,  symmetrical. 

RECEPTACLE  .....  Flat. 
PERIANTH  (leaves)  . . . 

CALYX  (sepals)   Polysepalous,  free,  sepals  5,  ovate. 

COROLLA  (petals) Gamopetalous,  free,  pink  and  white,  salver- 
shaped,  border  five-lobed,  tube  thickly 
clothed  within  with  white  hairs. 

STAMENS 10,  distinct,  slightly  united  to  base  of  corolla, 

flowers  dimorphous  as  to  the  stamens,  the 
short  stamens  having  generally  no  anthers. 

FILAMENTS Of  two  lengths  in  different  flowers. 

ANTHERS Adnate,  introrse,  two-celled,  dehiscence  lon- 
gitudinal. 
PISTIL 5  carpels,  syncarpous. 


308  APPENDIX. 

OVARY  Glandular-hairy,  five-lobed,  five-celled,  pla- 

centation  central;  ovules  many,  anatropous. 

STYLE Forming  a  five-lobed  ring  or  collar  around 

the  stigmas. 

STIGMAS 5,  of  two  lengths  ;  longer  in  the  flowers  with 

short  stamens. 

FRUIT A  fleshy,  five-angled  capsule,  loculicidal. 

SEEDS Many,  dicotyledonous,  albuminous. 

REMARKS The  flower  seldom  sets  seed.    Fertile  flowers 

are  always  those  with  long  stigmas. 


VIOLA   CUCULLATA.     Common  Blue  Violet. 

Family  VIOLACE.E. 

A  low  perennial  herb,  with  simple  radical  leaves,  and  blue  flowers 

on  naked  scapes,  very  common. 

Flowering  in  Spring. 

ROOT    Fibrous. 

STEM    A    rootstock,    thickly  covered    with    fleshy 

teeth. 

LEAVES   Radical,    simple,    palmately- veined,     heart- 
shaped,  crenate,  smooth. 

PETIOLE Channelled. 

STIPULES Lance-shaped,  hairy. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers   solitary,    scape  smooth,   with    two 

AND  BRACTS.  small  bracts. 

ESTIVATION   Imbricated.    (See  diagram  on  p.  92,  Fig.  11.) 

FLOWER Complete,  irregular,  symmetrical. 

RECEPTACLE Flattish. 

PERIANTH  (leaves) . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Polysepalous.    free,    sepals    5,    lance-ovate, 

auricled  at  the  base. 
COROLLA  (petals) Polypetalous,  free,  petals  5,  the  lower  spurred 


APPENDIX.  309 

at  the  base,  spur  short  and  thick,  lateral 
petals  bearded. 

STAMENS    5,   distinct,   but  conniving  over    the   pistil, 

free. 

FILAMENTS  Continued  beyond  the  anthers,  lower  sta- 
mens with  a  nectar-secreting  appendage 
projecting  into  the  spur. 

ANTHERS  Adnate,     introrse,     two-celled,     dehiscence 

longitudinal. 

PISTIL   3  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY  One-celled,  3  placentae,  covering  the  face  of 

the  wall ;  ovules  many,  anatropous. 

STYLE One. 

STIGMA Club-shaped,  turned  on  one  side  and  slightly 

beaked. 

FRUIT A  capsule,   loculicidal,   splitting  elastically, 

throwing  the  seeds. 

SEEDS Many,  dicotyledonous,  albuminous. 

REMARKS Bearing  also  closed  (cleistogamous)  flowers 

near  or  beneath  the  ground,  which  are  more 
fertile  than  the  ordinary  ones. 


HOUSTONIA  C^RULEA.    Innocence,  Bluets,  Quaker  Lady. 

Family  RUBIACE.E. 

A  very  delicate  biennial  herb,  with  small,  opposite,  spatulate  leaves, 

and  bluish  terminal  flowers,  meadows. 
Height,  3  to  6  inches.    Spring  and  Summer. 

ROOT Fibrous. 

STEM Delicate,  slender,  erect,  smooth. 

LEAVES Opposite,    simple,    spatulate-oblong,    acute, 

entire,  sessile,  smooth. 
PETIOLE..         ..None. 


310  APPENDIX. 

STIPULES Minute,  connecting  the  leaves. 

INFLORESCENCE . .  Flowers  cymosely-clustered  or  solitary  ;  pe- 

AND  BRACTS.  duncle  very  slender. 

^ESTIVATION Valvate.     (See  diagrams,  p.  98,  Fig.  12.) 

FLOWER Complete,  regular,  symmetrical,  4  to  5  lines 

long. 

RECEPTACLE Flat. 

PERIANTH  (leaves) . . 

CALYX  (sepals)   Gamosepalous,  adnate  to  ovary,  four-cleft, 

divisions  lance-linear. 

COROLLA  (petals)  ....  Gamopetalous,   on  calyx,   salver-form,  four- 
lobed,  white  or  bluish,  with  a  yellow  eye. 

STAMENS 4,  distinct,  on  corolla. 

FILAMENTS None. 

ANTHERS Two-celled,  introrse,  dehiscence  longitudinal, 

inserted  in  some  flowers  low  down,  and  in 
others  on  the  throat  of  the  corolla. 

PISTIL 2  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY  Two-celled,  central  placenta  ;  ovules  4  to  20 

in  each  cell. 

STYLE 1,   dimorphous,    one    form    long,   the  other 

short. 

STIGMAS 2. 

FRUIT A  capsule,  broader  than  long,  half-free  from 

calyx,  loculicidal  at  the  top. 

SEEDS Roundish,  pitted,  dicotyledonous,  albuminous. 

REMARKS The  flower  is  dimorphous,  the  short  and  long 

styles  being  fertilized  by  the  stamens  of 
corresponding  length. 


APPENDIX.  311 

ERYTHRONIUM   AMERICANUM.     Dog-Tooth  Violet. 

Family  LILIACE^:. 

A  bulbous  perennial  plant,  with  two  shining,  mottled,  radical 
leaves,  and  solitary  yellow  flowers  on  naked  scapes,  low  copses, 
common. 

Height,  6  to  10  inches.     Spring.- 

Roox    Fibrous. 

STEM   A  deep,  underground,  scaly  corm,  throwing 

out  underground  branches. 

LEAVES  2,  radical,  sheathing  the  base  of  the  one- 
flowered  scape,  3  to  8  inches  long,  1  to  1£ 
wide,  lance-oval,  entire,  smooth,  shining, 
mottled  with  brown. 

PETIOLE Leaf  tapering  into  petiole. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flower  solitary,  nodding,  on  a  naked,  smooth 

AND  BRACTS.  peduncle. 

^ESTIVATION   Imbricated.    (See  diagram  on  p.  100,  Fig.  13.) 

FLOWER Complete,  regular,  symmetrical. 

RECEPTACLE  ....Flat. 

PERIANTH  (leaves)  . .  .6  leaves,  distinct,  linear,  light  yellow,  spotted 
near  the  base. 

CALYX  (sepals) Linear,  recurved. 

COROLLA  (petals) ....  Broadly  lanceolate,  with  a  callous  tooth  on 
each  side  of  the  base. 

STAMENS   6,  distinct,  free,  half  the  length  of  perianth. 

FILAMENTS   Flat,  awl-shaped. 

ANTHERS  Innate,  two-celled,  yellow  or  reddish  brown, 

longitudinal  dehiscence. 

PISTIL   3  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY Three-celled,  placentation  central ;  ovules  in 

two  rows,  anatropous. 


312  APPENDIX. 

STYLE    Club-shaped,  three-lobed. 

STIGMAS 3,  often  united  into  one. 

FRUIT A  capsule,  loculicidal. 

SEEDS Numerous,  with   a  loose  appendage  at  the 

apex,  monocotyledonous,  albuminous. 

REMARKS Do  the  .different  colors  of  the  anthers  denote 

fertile  and  sterile  flowers  ? 


SALIX  PETIOLARIS.    Petioled  Willow. 

Family  SALICACE;E. 

A  shrub,  growing  in  wet  places,  with  lanceolate,  serrate  leaves,  and 

catkins  appearing  before  the  leaves  from  a  glossy  black  scale. 

Height,  4  to  10  feet.    April. 

STEM Exogenous,  branching  freely  from  near  the 

ground. 

LEAVES Alternate,  simple,  lanceolate,  serrate,  grayish 

beneath. 

PETIOLE Short. 

STIPULES Small,  toothed,  deciduous. 

INFLORESCENCE Dioecious,  the  sterile  flowers  in  ovoid  catkins, 

AND  BRACTS.  the  fertile  in  cylindrical  catkins,  one  flower 

under  each  scale,  the  middle  flowers  first 
expanding  ;  scales  black,  acute,  silky -hairy. 
Several  small  bracts  at  the  base  of  each 
catkin. 

^ESTIVATION  No  floral  envelopes. 

FLOWER Imperfect,  a  small  gland  at  the  base  of  each 

flower. 

RECEPTACLE  . . . 
PERIANTH  (leaves) . . 

CALYX  (sepals) None. 

COROLLA  (petals)  . .  .None. 


APPENDIX.  313 

STAMENS 2,  distinct. 

FILAMENTS Elongating,  slender,  round. 

ANTHERS Dorsifixed,  extrorse,  two-celled,  longitudinal 

dehiscence. 

PISTIL 2  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY Stalked,     silky  -hairy,    tapering,    one-celled, 

2  parietal  placentae ;  ovules  many,  anatro- 
pous. 

STYLE Short. 

STIGMA Two-parted. 

FRUIT A  pod,  loculicidal. 

SEEDS Exalbuminous,  dicotyledonous,  furnished  with 

silky  down. 

REMARKS Very  attractive  to  bees  from  the  fragrance 

and  abundance  of  nectar. 


QUERCUS   RUBRA. 

Family  CUPULIFER^E. 

A  large  forest  tree,  with  reddish  wood,  dark  furrowed  bark,  and 
bristly,  pointed,  pinnatifid  leaves  ;  flowers  monoecious,  appearing 
with  the  leaves  ;  common. 

Height,  50  to  80  feet.    May. 

STEM Exogenous,  trunk  and  branches  stout,  the 

branches  nearly  at  right  angles  with  the 
trunk. 

LEAVES Alternate,  simple,  pinnately  veined,  pinnati- 
fid, sinuses  acute,  lobes  bristle-pointed,  apex 
acuminate,  downy  when  young,  becoming 
smooth. 

PETIOLE Slender,  rather  short. 

STIPULES Deciduous. 


314  APPENDIX. 

INFLORESCENCE Monoecious  ;  sterile  flowers  in  lateral,  droop- 

AND  BRACTS.  ing  catkins,  fertile  flowers  solitary  or  clus- 

tered in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  of  the  season, 
sterile  flowers  naked,  the  fertile  sessile  sur- 
rounded by  an  appressed  involucre  (acorn- 
cup). 

ESTIVATION Open. 

FLOWER Imperfect. 

RECEPTACLE  

PERIANTH  (leaves)  . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Sterile  flowers  gamosepalous,  of  3  or  more 

little    scaly  lobes,  fertile  flowers    without 
floral  envelopes. 
COROLLA  (petals) ....  Xone. 

STAMENS. 4  to  6,  distinct,  free. 

FILAMENTS None. 

ANTHERS Sessile,  basifixed,  erect,  two-celled,  dehiscence 

longitudinal. 

PISTIL 3  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY  Three-celled,  three-ovuled. 

STYLE Spreading,  three-lobed. 

STIGMA The  lobes  stigmatic  within. 

FRUIT An   acorn,  maturing  the   second  year,   cup 

shallow,  saucer- shaped,  sessile  or  slightly 
stalked. 
SEED One,  exalbuminous,  dicotyledonous. 


ULMUS   AMERICANA.     American  Elm. 

Family  URTICACE.E. 

A  large,  deciduous  tree,  with  alternate,  simple  leaves,  and  small, 
perfect  flowers  appearing  before  the  leaves  in  April. 

ROOT Fibrous. 


APPENDIX.  315 

STEM    Exogenous,  a  tall,  straight  trunk,  branching 

into  a  fine  spreading  head. 

LEAVES    Alternate,     simple,     pinnate-veined,    ovate, 

acuminate  at  apex,  unequal  at  base, 
coarsely  serrate,  smooth  above,  hairy 
beneath. 

PETIOLE Short. 

STIPULES Deciduous. 

INFLORESCENCE.  ...  .Flowers  in  clusters   from  axillary  buds,  on 
AND  BRACTS.  slender  drooping  pedicels,  with  a  few  bracts 

in  the  centre  of  the  cluster. 

^ESTIVATION.  „ Open. 

FLOWER Perfect,  incomplete. 

RECEPTACLE  .... 
PERIANTH  (leaves)  . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Gamosepalous,  a  small  oblique  7  to  9  cleft 

cup,  edged  with  red,  flattened  laterally. 
COROLLA  (petals) ....  None. 

STAMENS   7  to  10,  distinct,  exserted  on  calyx. 

FILAMENTS   Round,  delicate,  white. 

ANTHERS Two-celled,    extrorse,   dorsifixed,  dehiscence 

longitudinal. 

PISTIL    2  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY  One-celled   or   sometimes   two-celled,  hairy, 

flattened,  one-ovuled ;  ovule  suspended. 

STYLE 2,  short. 

STIGMA Stigmatic  within. 

FRUIT A  samara,  oval,  flat,  hairy,  notched. 

SEED Exalbuminous,  dicotyledonous. 

REMARKS The  fruit  matures  early,  and  falls  while  the 

leaves  are  expanding. 


316  APPENDIX. 

ACER   PLATANOIDES.    Norway  Maple. 

Family  SAPINDACE.E. 

A  deciduous  tree,  cultivated  for  ornament,  with  large,  bright  green, 
rather  thin  leaves,  and  cymose  clusters  of  greenish  flowers, 
the  flowers  appearing  before  the  leaves,  and  continuing  to  de- 
velop till  the  leaves  are  well  grown. 

May.    Native  of  Europe. 

ROOT   Woody,  fibrous. 

STEM Exogenous,  erect. 

LEAVES. Opposite,  simple,  palmately  five-cleft,  the  di 

visions  incised  with  acuminate  tips,  heart- 
shaped  at  base,  thin,  smooth,  and  bright 
green. 

STIPULES None. 

PETIOLE Round,  smooth. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  in  terminal,  mixed  clusters,  a  tiny 

AND  BRACTS.  linear  bract  at  the  base  of  each  primary 

and  secondary  pedicel. 

^ESTIVATION  Calyx  valvate,  the  inner  edges  turned  back- 
ward (reduplicate),  corolla  imbricated. 
(See  diagrams,  p.  110,  Fig.  15.) 

FLOWER Complete,  regular,  of  two  forms. 

RECEPTACLE With  a  fleshy  disk. 

PERIANTH  (leaves)  . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Gamosepalous,  adnate  to  a  fleshy,  perigynous 

disk,  deeply  five-cleft,  lobes  oblong,  obtuse. 

COROLLA  (petals)  ....  Polypetalous,  inserted  on  the  disk  at  its  base, 
8  petals,  spatulate,  green. 

STAMENS 8,  sunk  in  the  disk,  distinct. 

FILAMENTS Short  in  the  fertile,  long  in  the  sterile  flowers. 

ANTHERS Two-celled,  introrse,  adnate,  dehiscence  lon- 
gitudinal. 


APPENDIX.  317 

PISTIL  ..............  Syncarpous,  2  carpels,  free,  but  sunk  in  the 

centre    of   the   disk,  rudimentary  in  the 
flowers  with  long  stamens. 
OVARY  .........  Two-lobed,  two-celled,  2  ovules  in  each  cell, 

winged  on  the  back  of  each  cell. 
STYLE  ..........  Deeply  two-cleft. 

STIGTMA  .........  Stigmatic  on  the  inner  side  of  the  divisions 

of  the  style. 
FRUIT  ..............  A  pair  of  samaras  united  by  their  inner  faces, 

one-seeded. 
SEEDS  ..............  Exalbuminous,  embryo  with  long,  thin  crum- 

pled cotyledons. 
EEMARKS  ...........  The  short  stamens  do  not  dehisce,  so  that  the 

flowers  are  really  of  separate  sexes. 


HIPPOCASTANUM.     Horsechestnut. 

Family  SAPINDACE/E. 

A  very  large,  spreading,  deciduous  tree,  planted  for  ornament, 
with  compound  palmate  leaves,  and  showy,  pyramidal  clusters 
of  flowers. 

May.    Native  of  Asia. 

STEM   ..............  Exogenous,  woody,  branching  so  as  to  make 

the  tree  round-topped   and  dome-like  in 
form. 
LEAVES   ............  Opposite,  palmately  -compound,  leaflets  usu- 

ally 7,   wedge-obovate,    apex    acuminate, 
pinnate-  veined,    the    veins    running    into 
teeth,  serrate,  leaves  very  large. 
STIPULES  .......  None. 

PETIOLE  ........  Thick,  horseshoe-shaped  at  base. 

INFLORESCENCE  ......  Flowers  in  a  large  dense  cluster  of  mixed 

AND  BRACTS.  inflorescence,  the  primary  branches  inde- 


318  APPENDIX. 

terminate,  the  secondary  with  terminal 
flowers  first  developing,  and  the  subsequent 
flowers  lateral,  giving  the  appearance  of  a 
raceme.  Bracts  none. 

ESTIVATION Calyx  and  corolla  imbricated.     (See  diagram 

on  p.  120,  Fig.  16.) 

FLOWER  .    Complete,  irregular,  of  two  forms. 

RECEPTACLE Flat. 

PERIANTH  (leaves) . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Gamosepalous,    adnate    to    a    hypogynous, 

nectar-secreting  disk,  five-lobed,  lobes 
roundish,  unequal. 

COROLLA  (petals) ....  Polypetalous,  adnate  to  disk,  petals  4  or  5, 
woolly,  with  channelled  claws,  auricled  at 
each  side  where  the  roundish  blade  joins 
the  claw,  the  auricles  pressed  against  the 
stamens,  white,  with  yellow  spots  becom- 
ing crimson. 

STAMENS   Usually  7,  distinct,  at  first  declined. 

FILAMENTS   Unequal,  lengthening  as  the  anthers  mature, 

joined  to  disk. 

ANTHERS  Adnate,    introrse,    dehiscence    longitudinal. 

Pollen  red. 

PISTIL Generally  imperfect  in  the  upper  flowers  of 

the  spike,  consisting  of  an  abortive  ovary, 
and  a  short,  pink-tipped  style.  In  some 
of  the  lower  flowers  the  style  is  long,  and 
develops  before  the  stamens. 

OVARY Covered  with  glandular  hairs,  three-celled,  2 

ovules  in  each  cell. 

STYLE In  fertile  flowers,  long,  curved  upwards. 

STIGMA Minute,  terminal. 

FRUIT A  capsule,  covered  with  sharp  bristles,  three- 

valved. 


APPENDIX.  319 

SEEDS 1  to  3,  large,  brown,  shining,  cotyledons 

thick,  fleshy,  caulicle  fitting  into  a  little 
pocket  in  the  shell. 

REMARKS .The  change  of  color  appears  to  be  indepen- 
dent of  fertilization,  but  is  utilized  by  the 
bees  as  a  guide,  the  red  flowers,  rifled  of 
their  nectar,  remaining  unvisited. 


PINUS   RIGIDA.     Pitch  Pine. 

Family  CONIFERS. 

An  evergreen  tree,   with  dark  green  needles   and  prickly  cones, 

sandy  soil,  common. 
Height,  40  to  50  feet.     May,  June. 

ROOT    Woody. 

STEM Wood  without  ducts,   hard,   resinous,  bark 

dark-colored,  very  rough. 

LEAVES Of  two  kinds,  the  primary  leaves  thin  and 

scale-like,  secondary  leaves  in  their  axils, 
in  clusters  of  3,  needle-shaped,  evergreen, 
sharp-pointed,  in  a  short  sheath  of  scales. 

PETIOLE None. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE  Sterile  flowers  catkin-like,  in  clusters  at  the 

AND  BRACTS.  base  of  the  shoot  of  the  season ;    fertile 

flowers  lateral  on  the  new  shoot. 

^ESTIVATION Floral  envelopes  none,  carpellary  scales  im- 
bricated. 

FLOWER Incomplete,  monoacious. 

RECEPTACLE  .... 
PERIANTH  (leaves) . . .  None. 

CALYX  (sepals) 

COROLLA  (petals) .... 


320  APPENDIX. 

STAMENS Many,  spirally  arranged  on  the  axis. 

FILAMENTS Connective  scale-like. 

ANTHERS Pollen-sacs  2,  on  the  under  side  of  the  scale- 
like  connective,  opening  lengthwise. 

PISTIL Carpels,  many,  open. 

OVARY  None  ;  ovules  naked,  a  pair  on  each  scale, 

orthotropous. 

STYLE None. 

STIGMA None. 

FRUIT A  cone  formed  of  small  outer  scales  (car- 
pels1), and  large  rigid  inner  scales  (pla- 
centae1) ;  the  latter  are  recurved  and 
bristle-pointed. 

SEEDS 2,  nut-like,  sunk  in  the  placental  scale  and 

carrying  away  a  part  of  the  lining  as  a 
wing,  polycotyledonous,  albuminous. 

REMARKS The  homology  of  this  group  is  much  dis- 
puted, and  some  botanists  doubt  the  advis- 
ability of  trying  to  compare  it  at  all  with 
the  flowering  plants.  The  view  adopted  in 
this  description  may  be  found  in  Gcebel's 
Outlines  (see  note  on  p.  130).  Each 
cluster  of  stamens  and  ovules  is  regarded 
as  a  single  flower. 


PYRUS   MALUS.     Apple. 

Family  ROSACES. 

A  deciduous  tree,  cultivated  for  its  fruit. 
May.     Native  of  Europe. 

ROOT Fibrous,  woody. 

1  The  outer  scales  are  regarded  as  bracts,  and  the  inner  scales  as  carpels,  by 
Dr.  Gray  and  others. 


APPENDIX.  321 

STEM Exogenous,  branching. 

LEAVES Alternate,    simple,    pinnate-veined,    broadly 

oval,  apex  acute,  base  heart-shaped,  serrate, 
downy  beneath,  vernation  involute. 

PETIOLE Short,  channelled. 

STIPULES Joined  to  petiole,  small,  linear  or  oblanceo- 

late,  deciduous. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  from  mixed  buds,  in  terminal,  cymose 

AND  BRACTS.  clusters,  surrounded  by  the  leaves.    Bracts 

awl-shaped. 

ESTIVATION   Calyx   and    corolla    imbricated.      (See   dia- 
grams, p.  134.) 

FLOWER Complete,   regular,    symmetrical,   large    and 

showy. 

RECEPTACLE  . . .  .Developed  into  a  disk,  lining  the  calyx  tube. 
PERIANTH  (leaves)  . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Gamosepalous,  adnate  to  ovary,  rive-lobed, 

lobes  lanceolate,  downy. 

COROLLA  (petals)  ....  Polypetalous,  perigynous  on  calyx,  5  petals, 
round  with  claws,  white  tinged  with  rose. 

STAMENS Many,  distinct,  perigynous. 

FILAMENTS. Unequal. 

ANTHERS Dorsifixed,    introrse,    two-celled,    dehiscence 

longitudinal. 

PISTIL    5  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY Inferior,  five-celled,  central  placenta,  2  ovules 

in  each  cell. 

STYLE Five-cleft. 

STIGMAS Terminal,  oblique. 

FRUIT A  pome,  crowned  by  the  persistent  calyx 

lobes,  sunken  at  both  ends. 

SEEDS 2  in  each  cell,  dicotyledonous,  exalbuminous. 

REMARKS  . . 


322  APPENDIX. 

PRUNUS   CERASUS.     Cherry. 

Family  ROSACES. 

A  deciduous  tree,  cultivated  for  its  fruit. 
April,  May.     Europe. 

ROOT Perennial,  fibrous,  woody. 

STEM Exogenous,  erect. 

LEAVES Alternate,  simple,  pinnate-veined,  oval,  apex 

acuminate,  serrate,  smooth,  vernation  con- 
duplicate. 

PETIOLE Short. 

STIPULES Adnate  to  base  of  stem,  lanceolate,  toothed. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers   and  leaves  in  separate  buds,    the 

AND  BRACTS.  flowers  1,  2,  or  3  from  a  single  bud,  but 

the  buds  grouped  so  as  to  make  large  clus- 
ters of  flowers,  appearing  with  the  leaves. 

ESTIVATION Imbricated.     (See  diagram,  p.  134,  Fig.  18.) 

FLOWER Complete,  regular,  symmetrical. 

RECEPTACLE  .  . .  .Flat. 
PERIANTH  (leaves)  .  . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Gamosepalous,  free,  five-lobed,  lobes  reflexed, 

ovate. 

COROLLA  (petals) Polypetalous,  on  calyx,  petals  5,  round,  with 

claws,  notched,  white. 

STAMENS Many,  distinct,  on  calyx. 

FILAMENTS Unequal. 

ANTHERS  Dorsifixed,   introrse,   two-celled,   dehiscence 

longitudinal. 

PISTIL Simple. 

OVARY  .  One-celled,  two-ovuled. 

STYLE Single. 

STIGMA Terminal. 

FRUIT Drupe,  fleshy  and  edible. 


APPENDIX.  323 

SEED 1,  containing  a  bitter  principle   resembling 

prussic  acid,  dicotyledonous,  exalbuminous. 
REMARKS  . . 


FRAGARIA   VIRGINIANA.     Strawberry. 

Family  ROSACES. 

A  low  herb,  with  runners,  with  white  flowers  in  cymose  clusters, 

and  a  juicy  red  fruit,  wild  and  cultivated. 

Flowering  in  Spring. 

ROOT Fibrous. 

STEM Underground,  bearing  runners. 

LEAVES Radical,    palmately  -  compound,    leaflets    3, 

wedge-obovate,  coarsely  toothed  towards  the 
apex. 

PETIOLE Long,  channelled. 

STIPULES Adherent  to  base  of  petiole,  thin,  lanceolate. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  in  cymes,  on  hairy  scapes.     Bracts 

AND  BRACTS.  leaf-like. 

FLOWER Complete,  regular. 

RECEPTACLE Conical. 

^ESTIVATION Calyx  valvate,  corolla  imbricated.     (See  dia- 
gram, p.  136,  Fig.  19.) 
PERIANTH  (leaves)  . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Gamosepalous,    free,    deeply  five-cleft,  with 

5  bracts  between  the  lobes,  lobes  lanceolate. 

COROLLA  (petals) Polypetalous  on  calyx,  5  petals,  round  with 

claws. 

STAMENS Many,  distinct,  on  calyx. 

FILAMENTS Unequal. 

ANTHERS Two-celled,  innate,  dehiscence  longitudinal. 

PISTIL Apocarpous,  carpels  many,  in  a  head  on  an 

enlarged  receptacle. 


324  APPENDIX. 

OVARY One-celled. 

STYLE Short,  lateral. 

STIGMA Terminal. 

FRUIT Accessory,  on  enlarged  receptacle  becoming 

juicy  and  holding  the  indehiscent  dry  car- 
pels, which  resemble  seeds. 

SEEDS Many,  small. 

REMARKS There  is  an  endless  number  of  varieties  of 

the  cultivated  fruit. 


RANUNCULUS   BULBOSUS.    Buttercup. 

Family  RANUNCULACE.E. 

A  common  weed,  with  compound  leaves  and  solitary  flowers  ter- 
minating the  branches,  fields. 
Height,  1  foot.     Spring  and  early  Summer. 

ROOT Of  fleshy  fibres. 

STEM Bulbous,  simple  or  branching  diffusely  from 

the  base,  hairy. 

LEAVES  Radical  and  cauline,  alternate,  ternately  com- 
pound, leaflets  pinnately  incised  and  lobed, 
hairy. 

PETIOLE Deeply  channelled,  very  short,  flat  and  clasp- 
ing, radical  leaves  with  sessile,  lateral  divis- 
ions, the  terminal  long-stalked. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  solitary,  terminal,  bracts  leaf -like, 

AND  BRACTS.  peduncles  furrowed. 

^ESTIVATION Imbricated.     (See  diagrams,  p.  154,  Fig.  20.) 

FLOWER Complete,  regular,  symmetrical. 

RECEPTACLE  . . .  .Conical. 
PERIANTH  (leaves) . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Polysepalous,  free,  5  sepals,  ovate,  reflexed, 

deciduous,  valvate. 


APPENDIX.  325 

COROLLA  (petals) Polypetalous,  on  receptacle,  5  petals,  some- 
times 6  or  7,  wedge-obovate,  with  a  little 
scale  at  the  base,  yellow,  shining,  imbri- 
cated. 

STAMENS Many,  distinct,  on  receptacle. 

FILAMENTS Unequal. 

ANTHERS  Innate,  two-celled,  dehiscence  longitudinal. 

PISTIL „ Compound,  apocarpous,  carpels  many  in  a 

head. 

OVARY One-celled,    one-ovuled,    ascending,    anatro- 

pous. 

STIGMA Beaked. 

FRUIT A  head  of  akenes  flattened. 

SEEDS Erect,  dicotyledonous,  albuminous. 

REMARKS Mtiller  says  that  the  nectar  is  secreted  in  the 

little  scale  at  the  base  of  the  petals.  I  have 
never  been  able  to  find  any  nectar. 

AQUILEGIA   CANADENSIS.    Wild  Columbine. 

Family  RANUNCULACE^E. 

A  graceful,  perennial  plant,  with  compound  leaves  and  nodding, 

spurred,  red  and  yellow  flowers,  in  rocky  places. 
Height,  12  to  18  inches.     Spring  and  early  Summer. 

ROOT Spindle-shaped. 

STEM Loosely  branching  from  the  base. 

LEAVES Radical   and    cauline,   palmately-compound, 

2  to  3  ternate,  leaflets  wedge-obovate,  in- 
cised, obtuse,  glaucous  beneath. 

PETIOLE Delicate,  round,  smooth. 

STIPULES Small,  adnate  to  petiole. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  solitary,   nodding  on  slender  pedi- 

.AND  BRACTS,  eels,   terminal    and    axillary   from   three- 

xlivided  bracts. 


326  APPENDIX. 

^ESTIVATION .Calyx  valvate,  corolla  imbricated.     (See  dia- 
grams, p.  156,  Fig.  21.) 

FLOWER Complete,  regular. 

RECEPTACLE  . . .  .Flat. 
PERIANTH  (leaves)  . .  . 

CALYX  (sepals) Polysepalous,   free,  5  sepals,  ovate,  colored 

like  the  petals. 

COROLLA  (petals) Polypetalous,  hypogynous,  5  petals,  hollow, 

prolonged  backwards  into  a  straight  nec- 
tariferous spur,  red,  yellow  within,  spurs 
callous  at  the  tips. 

STAMENS Many,  distinct,  on  receptacle. 

FILAMENTS Unequal,  the  outer  recurved,  the  inner  re- 
duced to  flat  scales. 

ANTHERS  Innate,  two-celled,  dehiscence  longitudinal. 

PISTILS 5,  apocarpous. 

OVARY  Hairy-celled,  many-ovuled;  ovules  anatropous. 

STYLE Long,  tapering,  slender. 

STIGMA Terminal. 

FRUIT A  pod,  erect. 

SEEDS Black,  shining,  dicotyledonous,  albuminous. 

REMARKS  


CORYDAL.IS  GLAUCA. 

Family  FUMARIACE.-E. 

A  delicate,  smooth  biennial,  pale,  with  compound  dissected  leaves, 
and  racemes  or  panicles  of  rose-colored  flowers  tipped  with  yel- 
low ;  rocky  places,  lasting  sparingly  through  the  summer. 
Height,  1  to  2  feet.     May. 

ROOT A  tap-root,  biennial. 

STEM Erect,  pale,  smooth. 

LEAVES Alternate,  pinnately-compound,   the  leaflets 


APPENDIX.  327 

incised,  the  divisions  linear  or  oval,  acute, 
smooth,  gradually  diminishing  above  to 
small  leafy  bracts. 

PETIOLE Smooth,  flat. 

STIPULES  ..... .None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  in  terminal  racemes,  the  racemes 

AND  BRACTS.  panicled,  slightly  nodding.     Bracts  small, 

entire  or  incised. 

ESTIVATION Calyx  valvate,  corolla  with  petals  in  pairs. 

FLOWER Complete,  irregular,  symmetrical. 

RECEPTACLE  . . .  .Flat. 
PERIANTH  (leaves)  . .  . 

CALYX  (sepals) Polysepalous,  free,  very  small,  ovate,  acumi- 
nate, pink,  2  sepals. 

COROLLA  (petals) Petals  slightly  united,  hypogynous,  4  petals, 

horizontal,  upper  petal  produced  backwards 
into  a  short  rounded  spur,  the  tip  reflexed, 
yellow  ;  lower  petal  boat-shaped,  enclosing 
the  pistil,  yellow-tipped  ;  two  lateral  petals 
united  to  upper,  spoon-shaped,  with  thick, 
crested  tips  forming  a  hood  over  the  anthers 
and  stigma. 

STAMENS 6,  joined  to  corolla. 

FILAMENTS United,  diadelphous,  flat. 

ANTHERS Basifixed,  introrse,  middle  anthers  two-celled, 

lateral  one-celled,  dehiscence  longitudinal. 

PISTIL 2  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY Superior,  linear,  one-celled,  2    parietal  pla- 
centae ;  ovules  many. 

STYLE Short,  curved  upward. 

STIGMA Two-lobed,  terminal. 

FRUIT A  pod,  erect,  long,  and  linear. 

SEEDS Shining,  crested,  dicotyledonous,  albuminous. 

REMARKS . . 


328  APPENDIX. 

ARALIA   NUDICAUUS.     Wild  Sarsaparilla. 

Family  ARALIACE.E. 

A  perennial  herb,  with  thick,  aromatic  rootstocks,  a  single  three- 
parted  leaf,  and  a  terminal  scape,  bearing  several  umbels  of 
greenish  white  flowers  ;  moist  woods. 

Height,  1  foot.     May,  June. 

ROOT Fibrous. 

STEM A  long,  thick,  woody,  aromatic  rootstock. 

LEAVES 1  radical  leaf,  three-parted,  divisions  pinnate, 

leaflets  5,  ovate  lanceolate,  serrate,  downy. 

PETIOLE Long,  swollen  at  the  base,  smooth. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  in  a  compound  umbel,   with  tiny 

AND  BRACTS.  scaly  bracts. 

^ESTIVATION „ . .  Valvate. 

FLOWER . . .  Complete,  regular,  symmetrical. 

RECEPTACLE Flat. 

PERIANTH  (leaves) . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Gamosepalous,  adnate  to  ovary,  lobes  minute, 

pointed. 

COROLLA  (petals) ....  Polypetalous,    epigynous,    5    petals,    ovate, 
white,  reflexed. 

STAMENS 5,  distinct,  epigynous. 

FILAMENTS Inflexed  at  the  apex. 

ANTHERS Dorsifixed,    extrorse,  two-celled,  dehiscence 

longitudinal. 

PISTIL , 5  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY  Five-celled,    placentation    central ;    1    ovule 

suspended  in  each  cell. 

STYLES 5. 

STIGMAS Terminal. 

FRUIT o .  A  berry -like  drupe,  dark  purple. 


APPENDIX.  329 

SEEDS 1  in  each  cell,  dicotyledonous,  albuminous. 

REMARKS The  roots  are  used  as  a  substitute  for  sarsa- 

parilla. 

POL, YG ALA   PAUCIFOLIA.     Fringed  Polygala. 

Family  POLYGALACE.E. 

A  low  perennial  herb,  with  alternate  simple  leaves,  the  lower 
reduced  to  scales,  and  1  to  3  short,  peduncled,  rose-purple 
flowers,  equalling  the  leaves  ;  dry  woods. 

Height,  6  to  9  inches.     May. 

ROOT Delicate  fibres. 

STEM Running    underground,   throwing    up    erect 

branches. 

LEAVES Alternate,  simple,  crowded  near  the  top  of 

the  stem,  margin  fringed,  smooth,  lower 
surface  shining,  lower  leaves  reduced  to 
small,  oval,  entire  scales. 

PETIOLE Leaves  contracted  into  a  short  petiole. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE. Flowers  1  to  3,  terminating  the  stem,  pedun- 

AND  BRACTS.  cled. 

^ESTIVATION Imbricated. 

FLOWER Complete,  irregular,  9  lines  long. 

RECEPTACLE Flat. 

PERIANTH  (leaves) . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Polysepalous,  free,  persistent,  5  sepals,  upper 

sepal  boat-shaped,  lateral  sepals  large,  oval, 
spreading,  rose-purple,  two  lower  sepals 
lanceolate,  small  and  greenish. 

COROLLA  (petals) Gamopetalous,  free,  3  petals,  united  into  a 

lip,  three-lobed,  fringe- crested  at  the  tip. 

STAMENS 6,  diadelphous,  united  to  petal. 


330  APPENDIX. 

FILAMENTS Flat. 

ANTHERS One-celled,  opening  by  chinks  at  the  top  of 

the  cell. 

PISTIL 2  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY  Superior,  flattened,  2  cells  ;  ovules  1  in  each 

cell,  pendulous,  anatropous. 

STYLE Single,  undivided,  long,  curved  upward. 

STIGMA Terminal,  flat. 

FRUIT A  pod,  flattened,  margined,  rounded,  notched 

at  the  apex. 

SEEDS 2,  dicotyledonous,  albuminous,  caruncle  lobed. 

REMARKS Bearing    also    fertile,    closed,    underground 

flowers. 


BERBERIS   VULGARIS.     Barberry. 

Family  BERBERIDACE.E. 

A  shrub,  planted,  or  run  wild  in  New  England. 
May,  June.    Native  of  Europe. 

ROOT Fibrous. 

STEM Branching,  woody. 

LEAVES   Alternate,    simple,  pinnate-veined,    obovate, 

margin  spiny,  in  clusters  in  the  axils  of 
branched  spines,  which  are  reduced  leaves 
of  the  preceding  season. 

PETIOLE Short,  margined,  jointed. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  in  drooping,  many-flowered  racemes, 

AND  BRACTS.  from  the  centres  of  the  clusters  of  leaves. 

Bractlets  2-6  surrounding  each  flower. 

^ESTIVATION Calyx  and  corolla  imbricated. 

FLOWER Regular,  complete,  symmetrical. 

RECEPTACLE  ...  Flat. 


APPENDIX.  331 

PERIANTH  (leaves)  . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Polysepalous,  free,  6  sepals,  the  outer  smaller, 

obovate,  concave. 

COROLLA  (petals) Polypetalous,  hypogynous,  6  petals,  obovate, 

concave,  yellow,  on  short  claws,  with  two 
little  orange  glands  near  the  base. 

STAMENS 6,  distinct,  hypogynous,  opposite  the  petals. 

FILAMENTS Short  and  thick. 

ANTHERS Innate,  two-celled,  opening  by  uplifted  valves. 

PISTIL Simple. 

OVARY  One-celled  ;  ovules  few,  erect,  anatropous. 

STYLE None. 

STIGMA Round,  depressed  in  the  centre. 

FRUIT A  berry,  oblong,  red  and  sour,  with  few  seeds. 

SEEDS Few,  albuminous,  dicotyledonous. 

REMARKS The  stamens  are  sensitive,  and  at  a  slight 

touch  near  the  base  fly  up  towards  the 
pistil,  discharging  the  pollen. 

ARIS^MA  TRIPHYLL.UM.    Jack-in-the-Pulpit.     Indian 
Turnip. 

Family  ARACE^;. 

A  perennial  herb,  with  1  or  2  compound  leaves  and  a  scape  bearing 
numerous  incomplete  flowers  on  a  spadix,  sheathed  by  a  large 
purple-veined  bract ;  wet  places. 

Spring. 

ROOT Fibrous,  from  a  turnip-shaped, wrinkled  conn, 

juice  acrid. 

STEM A  scape,  sheathed  by  the  leaf  petioles,  bulbous. 

LEAVES 1  or  2,  radical,  palmately-compound,  leaf- 
lets 3,  elliptical-ovate,  pointed,  netted- 
veined,  smooth,  hollow. 


332  APPENDIX. 

PETIOLE Sheathing  the  flower-stalk  for  about  half  its 

length. 

STIPULES   None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  monoecious  or  dioecious  on  a  spadix, 

AND  BRACTS.  with  a  hooded  spathe,  green  striped  with 

purple  ;  peduncle  smooth,  round,  hollow. 
Leaves  and  flower-stalk  enclosed  in  scaly 
bracts. 

^ESTIVATION Floral  envelopes  none,  spathe  convolute  below, 

arching  above. 

FLOWER Incomplete. 

RECEPTACLE  ....  Prolonged  into  a  fleshy  spike,  naked  above, 

bearing  the  flowers  below. 
PERIANTH  (leaves)  . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) None. 

COROLLA  (petals)  ....  None. 

STAMENS Generally  two. 

FILAMENTS United. 

ANTHERS Two  or  four-celled,  opening  by  pores  in  the 

top. 

PISTIL Simple. 

OVARY One-celled  ;  ovules  5  or  6. 

STYLE None. 

STIGMA Depressed. 

FRUIT A  head  of  scarlet  berries,  smooth  and  shining. 

SEEDS 1  or  2,  round,  with  a  large  scar,  monocoty- 

ledonous,  albuminous. 

CYPRIPEDIUM   ACAUL.E.    Lady's  Slipper. 

Family  ORCHIDACE^E. 

A  monocotyledonous  plant,  with  large,  sheathing  leaves,  and  a 

single  showy,  rose-purple  flower ;  woods. 

Height,  8  to  12  inches.     May. 


APPENDIX.  333 

ROOT Of  tufted  fibres. 

STEM Very  short,  underground. 

LEAVES 2  alternate,  large,  sheathing,  parallel-veined, 

entire,  oval,  downy. 

PETIOLE None. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  generally  solitary  on  a  downy  scape, 

AND  BRACTS.  with  a  single  bract. 

^ESTIVATION (See  diagrams,  p.  172,  Fig.  25.) 

FLOWER Complete,  irregular,  unsymmetrical. 

RECEPTACLE  .... 
PERIANTH  (leaves)  .  . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Polysepalous,  free,  3  sepals,  the  two  lower 

united,  ovate-lanceolate,  purplish,  veined 
with  darker  parallel  lines. 

COROLLA  (petals) Polypetalous,  epigynous,  3  petals,  2  lateral 

lanceolate,  tapering  to  a  sharp  point,  ob- 
lique, the  other  petal  an  inflated,  drooping 
sac,  with  the  edges  turned  inward,  rose- 
colored,  veiny. 

STAMENS 3,     one    petal  -  like,     sterile,     covering    the 

style. 

FILAMENTS Adnate  to  the  style. 

ANTHERS 2,  two-celled,  pollen  loose  and  covered  by  a 

sort  of  sticky  varnish. 

PISTIL 3  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY  Covered    with    glandular    hairs,    one-celled, 

3  parietal  placentae  ;  ovules  many,  small. 

STYLE Thick,  making  with  the  filaments  a  declined 

column. 

STIGMA Terminal,  three-lobed,  broad,  moist,  rough. 

FRUIT . .  A  pod. 

SEEDS .  .  Minute. 

REMARKS The  bract  is  at  the  base  of  the  flower,  but 


334  APPENDIX. 


the  flower  is  reflexed  and  twisted  so  that 
it  appears  to  be  at  the  top.  (See  diagram, 
p.  172.) 


CAPSELLA  BURSA-PASTORIS.     Shepherd's  Purse. 

Family  CRUCIFER^. 

A  very  common  annual  weed,  with  radical  leaves  in  a  rosette,  and 
inconspicuous  flowers  in  a  terminal  raceme,  which  lengthens  as 
the  season  advances. 

Height,  6  to  18  inches.    April  to  September. 

ROOT A  strong  and  thick  tap-root. 

STEM A  short  underground  stem,  throwing  up  erect, 

leafy  scapes,  hairy. 

LEAVES Radical  and  alternate  on  the  flower-stems, 

variously  incised,  toothed,  and  piimatifid, 
variable. 

PETIOLE Flat,  margined,    the   cauline  leaves  sessile, 

clasping,  and  auricled. 

STIPULES   None. 

INFLORESCENCE    Flowers  in  terminal  racemes,  becoming  much 

AND  BRACTS.  elongated.     Bracts  toot!  ed. 

^ESTIVATION Imbricated.     (See  diagrams,  p.  186,  Fig.  26.) 

FLOWER Complete,  regular,  small. 

RECEPTACLE  ....  Flat. 
PERIANTH  (leaves)  . .  . 

CALYX  (sepals) Polysepalous,   free,    5   sepals,  ovate,   hairy, 

deciduous. 

COROLLA  (petals)    ...  Polypetalous,  hypogynous,  4  petals,  white, 
round,  with  short  claws. 

STAMENS 6,  distinct,  on  receptacle. 

FILAMENTS 4  long,  2  short  (tetradynamous). 


APPENDIX.  335 

ANTHERS Two-celled,  introrse,  dehiscence  longitudinal.1 

PISTIL 2  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY Two-celled,  by  a  thin,  false  partition  which 

grows  out  from  the  two  parietal  placentae, 
ovules  many. 

STYLE Very  short. 

STIGMA Capitate. 

FRUIT A  silicle,  obcordate,  the  valves  boat-shaped, 

falling  away,  leaving  the  seeds  on  the  ex- 
posed placentae. 

SEEDS Many,  cotyledons  two,  incumbent,   exalbu- 

minous. 
REMARKS  

STELLARIA  MEDIA.     Common  Chickweed. 

Family  CARYOPHYLLACE^E. 

A  common  annual  weed,  prostrate  and  trailing,  with  opposite,  entire 
leaves,  and  small  white  flowers  in  cymes  ;  fields  and  cultivated 
grounds  everywhere. 

Flowers  from  February  to  December.    Native  of  Europe. 

ROOT Fibrous. 

STEM Procumbent,  diffuse,  weak,  hairy  in  a  single 

line. 

LEAVES Opposite,  simple,  pinnately -veined,  oval,  apex 

acute,  margin  entire,  thin,  light  green,  lower 
leaves  contracted  at  base. 

PETIOLE Lower  leaves  on  hairy  petiole,  upper  sessile. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  in  terminal  cymose  clusters,  or  soli- 

AND  BRACTS.  tary. 

1  The  flower  is  BO  small  that  the  pupils  cannot  probably  make  out  many  of 
these  points.  They  should  never  write  in  their  descriptions  what  they  cannot 
see  for  themselves. 


336  APPENDIX. 

FLOWER Complete,  regular,  symmetrical. 

RECEPTACLE  . . .  .Flat. 

.^ESTIVATION Imbricated. 

PERIANTH  (leaves)  . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Polysepalous,  free,  4  or  5  sepals,  somewhat 

united  at  base,  pedicels  hairy,  deflexed  in 
fruit,  lanceolate,  persistent. 

COROLLA  (petals) ...  .Polypetalous,  more  or  less  perigynous,  5 
petals,  two-parted,  white,  shorter  than  the 
calyx. 

STAMENS 3  to  10,  distinct,  on  receptacle. 

FILAMENTS Slender,  round. 

ANTHERS Two-celled,   dorsifixed,    introrse,    dehiscence 

longitudinal. 

PISTIL  .    3  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY One-celled,  free  central  placenta;  ovules  many. 

STYLES 3. 

STIGMAS On  the  inside  of  the  divisions  of  the  style. 

FRUIT A  pod,  splitting  into  six  valves. 

SEEDS Campylotropous,  covered  with  minute  tuber- 
cles, albuminous. 
REMARKS The  plant  often  lives  through  the  winter. 


NEPETA   GLECHOMA.     Ground-Ivy. 

Family  LABIATE. 

A  trailing  perennial  weed,  in  waste  grounds,  with  square  stems, 
opposite,  simple  leaves,  and  small,  blue,  two-lipped  flowers,  clus- 
tered in  the  axils  ;  roadsides,  dooryards. 
Height,  6  to  12  inches.    May,  June.    Naturalized  from  Europe. 

ROOT Fibrous,  rooting  at  the  base  of  stem. 

STEM Procumbent,  throwing  up  ascending  branches, 

square,  swollen  at  the  joints,  and  very  hairy. 


APPENDIX.  337 

LEAVES Simple,    opposite,   palmately- veined,    round, 

kidney-shaped,  crenate,  hairy. 

PETIOLE Slightly  channelled,  long,  hairy. 

STIPULES  None. 

INFLOKESCENCE Flowers  in  axillary,  cymose  clusters,  pedun- 

AND  BRACTS.  cles  very  short. 

^ESTIVATION Imbricated.     (See  diagrams,  p.  192,  Fig.  27.) 

FLOWER Complete,  irregular,  unsymmetrical. 

EECEPTACLE  . . .  .Flat. 
PERIANTH  (leaves)  . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Gamosepalous,   free,   obliquely  five-toothed, 

persistent. 

COROLLA  (petals) Gamopetalous,  hypogynous,  two-lipped,  blue, 

spotted  with  purple,  upper  lip  two-lobed, 
erect,  lower  lip  three-lobed,  declined,  the 
middle  lobe  notched. 

STAMENS 4,  distinct,  ascending  under  the  upper  lip. 

FILAMENTS Of    two    lengths    (didynamous),   the   upper 

longer,  on  corolla. 

ANTHERS Two-celled,  dehiscence  longitudinal,  the  cells 

diverging  after  dehiscence,  and  each  pair 
of  anthers  forming  a  cross. 

PISTIL 4  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY  Deeply  four-lobed,  with  a  gland  at  the  base, 

1  ovule  in  each  cell. 

STYLE 1,  surrounded  by  the  4  lobes  of  the  ovary. 

STIGMAS  .......  .2. 

FRUIT Splitting  when  ripe  into  4  closed  nutlets. 

SEEDS Erect,  1  in  each  nutlet,  or  some  of  the  seeds 

aborted,  with  little  or  no  albumen. 

REMARKS Plant  aromatic.     Some  of  the  plants  have 

smaller,  female  flowers,  in  which  the 
anthers  are  club-shaped  and  sterile. 


338  APPENDIX. 

PEDICULARIS   CANADENSIS.     Wood-Betony. 

Family  SCROPHULARIACE.K. 

A  perennial  herb,  with  pinnately-parted  leaves  and  large,  thick  spikes 
of  sessile  red  and  yellow  two-lipped  flowers,  copses,  common. 
Height,  5  to  12  inches.     May,  June. 

ROOT Clustered  woody  fibres. 

STEM Stout,  hairy. 

LEAVES Alternate,  lower  leaves  pinnately-compound, 

the  upper  lobed,  the  lobes  creuate,  hairy, 
revolute  in  the  bud. 

PETIOLE Margined,  hairy. 

STIPULES  ......  .None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers    at   first  in  heads,   elongating  into 

AND  BRACTS.  spikes,    densely-flowered;    flowers   sessile, 

each  subtended  by  a  crenate  bract,  the 
axis  continued  into  a  cluster  of  small  leaves. 

^ESTIVATION Lower  lip  of  corolla  covering  the  upper  in  the 

bud. 

FLOWER Complete,  irregular,  1  inch  long. 

RECEPTACLE Flat. 

PERIANTH  (leaves)  . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Gamosepalous,  free,  oblique,  entire,  but  split 

in  front,  hairy  on  the  veins,  persistent. 

COROLLA  (petals)  ...  Polypetalous,  flattened,  on  receptacle,  two- 
lipped,  upper  lip  recurved,  hooded,  two- 
toothed  at  the  apex,  enclosing  the  stamens 
and  style,  lower  lip  three-lobed,  spreading, 
two-crested. 

STAMENS 4,  distinct,  on  receptacle. 

FILAMENTS Ascending  under  the  upper  lip,  slender. 

ANTHERS Dorsifixed,   flattened,    two-celled,    tailed    at 

base,  introrse,  dehiscence  longitudinal. 


APPENDIX.  339 

PISTIL 2  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY  Superior,    two-celled,    central    placentation ; 

ovules  many. 

STYLE Long,  slender,  ascending  under  the  upper  lip. 

STIGMA Terminal,  slightly  two-lobed. 

FRUIT A  two-celled  capsule,  loculicidal,  enclosed  in 

the  persistent  calyx. 

SEEDS Many,  dicotyledonous,  albuminous. 

REMARKS . . 


ZIZIA  AURBA.     Meadow-Parsnip. 

Family  UMBELLIFERJE. 

A  perennial  herb,  growing  in  wet  places  and  along  streams,  with 
large  pinnately-compound  leaves  and  small  yellow  flowers  in 
compound  umbels. 

Height,  1  to  3  feet.     May,  June. 

ROOT Fleshy  and  stringy,  thick. 

STEM Exogenous,  underground  a  rootstock,  abo^e 

ground  somewhat  branched,  erect,  ribbed, 
hollow. 

LEAVES Radical  and  cauline,  alternate,  1  to  2  ter- 

nately-compound,    leaflets   3,   lance-ovate, 
oblique,  serrate,  often  deeply  lobed. 

PETIOLE Of  radical  leaves,  channelled,  triangular,  di- 
lated at  the  base;    cauline  leaves  nearly 
sessile,  dilated,  and  clasping. 
STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers   in  compound  umbels,  with   a  few 

AND  BRACTS.  awl-shaped  bracts  on  the  upper  side  of  the 

umbellets,  no  involucre. 

^ESTIVATION Corolla    valvate,    with    the    point    mflexed. 

(See  diagrams,  p.  198,  Fig.  28.) 


340  APPENDIX. 

FLOWER Complete,  regular,  symmetrical. 

RECEPTACLE  ....Flat. 
PERIANTH  (leaves)  .  . . 
CALYX  (sepals) Nearly  obsolete,  5  very  minute  teeth,  adnate 

to  ovary. 
COROLLA  (petals) Polypetalous,  on  an  epigynous  disk,  5  petals, 

yellow. 

STAMENS 5,  distinct,  on  an  epigynous  disk. 

FILAMENTS Round,  smooth. 

ANTHERS Capitate. 

FRUIT Ten-ribbed,  splitting  into  2  oval,  seed-like, 

dry  carpels  (mericarps}. 

SEEDS Suspended,  dicotyledonous,  albuminous. 

REMARKS Between  the  ribs  of  the  carpels  are  oil-tubes 

containing  an  aromatic  oil.    These  are  not 

very  easily  seen  in  this  species. 


RUMEX  ACETOSELLA.     Field-Sorrel. 

Family  POLYGONACE^E. 

A  common  perennial  weed,  making  bright  red  patches  in  the  mead- 
ows, with  running  stems,  alternate,  halberd-shaped  leaves,  and 
dioecious  flowers  in  terminal  panicles. 

Height,  6  to  12  inches.    Spring.     Native  of  Europe. 

ROOT  ...    Fibrous. 

STEM Diffusely  branched  from  the  base,  sending 

out  runners,  herbaceous. 

LEAVES Alternate,    simple,    halberd-shaped,    entire, 

auricled. 

PETIOLE Margined. 

STIPULES A  scaly  sheath. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  in  terminal,  naked  panicles,  dioecious. 

AND  BRACTS.  Bracts  none. 


APPENDIX.  341 

ESTIVATION Valvate. 

FLOWER ...  Incomplete,  dioecious,  regular,  greenish,  be- 
coming red. 
RECEPTACLE  . . .  .Flat. 

PERIANTH  (leaves) . . .  Six  leaves,  separate  or  somewhat  united  at 
base,  very  small,  in  the  fertile  flower  the 
three  inner  divisions  forming  valves  over 
the  akene. 

CALYX  (sepals) 

COROLLA  (petals)  .... 

STAMENS 6,  distinct,  on  receptacle. 

FILAMENTS Short. 

ANTHERS Two-celled,   basifixed,   dehiscence  longitudi- 
nal, the  cells  diverging  after  dehiscence. 

PISTIL 3  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY Triangular,  one-celled,  one-ovuled ;  ovule  or- 

thotropous. 

STYLE None. 

STIGMAS 3,  hairy-tufted. 

FRUIT . .  An  akene. 

SEEDS Erect,  dicotyledonous,  albuminous. 

REMARKS The  plant  is  agreeably  acid  to  the  taste. 


PLANT  AGO   LANCEOLATA.     English  Plantain. 

Family  PLANTAGINACE.E. 

A  common  perennial  weed,  with  dense  spikes  of  small  greenish 
flowers  with  fugacious  stamens  and  filiform,  persistent  stigmas  ; 
fields  and  meadows,  common. 

Height,  9  inches  to  2  feet.     May,  June.     Introduced  from  Europe. 

ROOT A  strong  tap-root. 

STEM Very  short. 


342  APPENDIX. 

LEAVES Radical,  simple,  strongly  parallel-ribbed,  lan- 
ceolate, entire,  hairy. 

PETIOLE Leaf  tapering  into  a  margined  petiole. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  in  a  dense  head,  elongating  into  a 

AND  BRACTS.  spike,   on  naked,   hairy   scapes.      Bracts 

scarious,  one  at  the  base  of  each  flower. 

^ESTIVATION Imbricated. 

FLOWER Complete,  regular,  symmetrical 

RECEPTACLE  .... 
PERIANTH  (leaves) . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Polysepalous,  free,  sepals  4,  the  two  lower 

combined  into  one,  ovate,  transparent  with 
a  green  midrib  ending  in  an  acuminate  tip. 

COROLLA  (petals) Gamopetalous,    hypogynous,    salver-shaped, 

four-lobed,  lobes  lanceolate,  thin,  becoming 
scarious,  persistent,  enclosing  the  ovary  in 
fruit. 

STAMENS 4,  distinct,  on  corolla. 

FILAMENTS Slender,  exserted. 

ANTHERS Basifixed,  innate,  twc-celled,   ending  in  an 

awn-pointed  tip,  dehiscence  longitudinal. 

PISTIL 2  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY Superior,  two-celled ;  ovules  1  in  each  cell. 

STYLE Slender,  filiform,  maturing  before   the   sta- 
mens. 

STIGMA Long,  exserted,  hairy. 

FRUIT A  capsule,  with  an  opening  across,  making  a 

lid. 

SEEDS 2,  hollowed  on  the  inner  face,   shining,  di- 
cotyledonous, albuminous. 
REMARKS  . .               .  .The  flower  is  wind-fertilized. 


APPENDIX.  343 

TARAXACUM   OFFICINALE.     Dandelion. 

Family  COMPOSITE. 

A  perennial  weed,  common  everywhere  in  open  grounds,  with  radi- 
cal, runcinate  leaves  in  a  rosette,  and  yellow  heads  of  flowers  on 
naked,  hollow  scapes. 

April  to  November.    Native  of  Europe. 

ROOT A  thick,  milky  tap-root. 

STEM Very  short. 

LEAVES Radical,  lying  on  the  ground  in  a  rosette, 

runcinate,  pinnate-veined. 
PETIOLE  ...    ....  Margined. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  in  large,  solitary  heads  on  hollow, 

AND  BRACTS.  milky  scapes ;  involucre  double,  outer  row 

of  small  scales,  inner  row  single,  narrow, 
erect  in  the  bud,  reflexed  in  the  flower ; 
flowers  all  ligulate. 

^ESTIVATION Valvate. 

FLOWER Complete,  regular. 

RECEPTACLE Flat,  naked. 

PERIANTH  (leaves)  .  . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Pappus  of  capillary  bristles  on  the  summit  of 

the  beak  of  the  akene. 

COROLLA  (petals) Gamopetalous,  epigynous,  strap-shaped,  five- 
toothed,  yellow. 

STAMENS 5,  united,  on  the  corolla. 

FILAMENTS Short,  distinct. 

ANTHERS  Two-celled,  syngenesious,  dehiscence  longi- 
tudinal. 

PISTIL Simple. 

OVARY Inferior,  one-celled,  one-ovuled  ;  ovule  erect. 

STYLE Two-cleft,  developing  after  the  stamens. 


344  APPENDIX. 

STIGMAS 2,  stigmatic  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  divis- 
ions of  the  style. 

FRUIT An  akene,  ribbed,  the  ribs  roughened,  the 

beak  lengthened  in  fruit  and  bearing  the 
pappus  as  a  plume  on  top. 

SEED 1,  dicotyledonous,  exalbuininous. 

REMARKS Used  as  a  pot-herb  in  spring. 


CHRYSANTHEMUM    LEUCANTHEMUM.     Ox-Eye  Daisy. 

Family  COMPOSITE. 

A  common  weed  in  eastern  fields,  with  erect,  simple  stems,  bearing 
large,  terminal  heads  of  flowers,  disk  yellow,  rays  white,  leaves 
spatulate,  clasping,  the  lower  on  margined  petioles. 

Height,  1  to  2  feet.     June  to  July.    Native  of  Europe. 

ROOT Fibrous. 

STEM Erect,   hollow,    strongly  ribbed,   simple,    or 

branching  from  the  base. 

LEAVES Upper  leaves    sessile,   spatulate  or  oblong, 

clasping,  lower  leaves  tapering,  cut-toothed, 
pinnate- veined. 

PETIOLE Lower  leaves  with  margined  petiole,  upper 

leaves  sessile. 

STIPULES None. 

^ESTIVATION Valvate. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  in  large,  solitary  heads,  1|  to  2  inches 

AND  BRACTS.  in  diameter,  of  two  kinds  in  each  head  ;  in- 

volucre closely  imbricated,  the  scales  lance- 
shaped,  with  rusty  margins. 

FLOWER Ray-flowers,  20  to  30  in  a  single  row,  pistil- 
late, white,  disk-flowers  perfect,  yellow. 

RECEPTACLE Rather  flat  or  convex,  naked. 

PERIANTH  (leaves) . . . 


APPENDIX.  345 

CALYX  (sepals) Pappus  none. 

COROLLA  (petals)  ....  Gamopetalous,  epigynous,  ray -flowers  strap- 
shaped,   five-toothed,   white ;    disk-flowers 
tubular,  five-toothed,  yellow. 
STAMENS 5,  united. 

FILAMENTS Distinct. 

ANTHERS Two-celled,  syngenesious,  dehiscence  longi- 
tudinal. 
PISTIL Simple. 

OVARY  Inferior,  one-celled,  one-ovuled  ;  ovule  erect. 

STYLE 1,  two-lobed,  branches  flat,  with  a  hairy  apex. 

STIGMAS 2,  stigmatic  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  style. 

FRUIT An  akene,  ribbed. 

SEEDS 1,  dicotyledonous,  exalbuminous. 

REMARKS A  pest  to  the  farmers. 


RUDBECKIA   HIRTA.     Black-Eyed  Susan.    Purple  Cone- 
Flower. 

Family  COMPOSITE. 

A  biennial  herb,  with  hairy  stems  and  solitary,  terminal  heads 

with  orange  rays  and  a  dark  purple  conical  disk ;  fields. 

Height,  1  to  2  feet.    June  to  August. 

ROOT Fibrous. 

STEM Simple,  or  branching  near  the  base,  erect, 

rough-hairy. 

LEAVES Alternate,    radical    and    lower    stem-leaves 

spatulate,  three-nerved,  tapering  at  base ; 
upper  stem-leaves  oblong  or  lance-ovate, 
entire  or  slightly  toothed,  bristly -hairy. 

PETIOLE Lower  leaves  narrowed  into  a  margined  pet- 
iole, upper  leaves  sessile. 
STIPULES None. 


346  APPENDIX. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  in  terminal  heads,  radiate  ;  involucre 

AND  BRACTS.  leaf-like. 

^ESTIVATION Valvate ;  involucre  loosely  imbricated,  spread- 
ing. 

FLOWER Incomplete,  ray-flowers  neutral,  disk-flowers 

perfect. 

RECEPTACLE Conical,  chaff  concave. 

PERIANTH  (leaves)  . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Pappus  none. 

COROLLA  (petals) Rays    few,    orange,    showy,   neutral ;    disk- 
flowers  purple,  five-toothed,  teeth  spreading. 

STAMENS   5,  united,  on  corolla. 

FILAMENTS  ...    . .  Short,  distinct. 

ANTHERS Two-celled,  introrse,  syngenesious,  dehiscence 

longitudinal. 

PISTIL Simple. 

OVARY  ,.  Inferior,  one-celled,  one-ovuled  ;  ovule  erect. 

STYLE Two-cleft,  with  a  short,  triangular,  tufted- 
hairy  appendage  at  the  tips. 

STIGMA Stigmatic  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  divis- 
ions. 

FRUIT An  akene,  four-angled,  flat  at  the  top,  smooth. 

SEED 1,  dicotyledonous,  exalbuminous. 

REMARKS Introduced  into  Eastern  fields  with  Western 

clover- seed. 


ERIGERON   BELL.IDIFOMUS.      Robin's  Plantain. 

Family  COMPOSITE. 

A  perennial  herb,  with  spatulate,  toothed,  or  entire  leaves,  and 
terminal  heads  on  slender  peduncles,  with  narrow  violet  rays 
and  yellow  disk  ;  copses. 

Height,  12  to  18  inches.    Spring.     North  America. 


APPENDIX.  347 

ROOT Clustered,  fibrous. 

STEM Erect,  sparingly  branched,  hairy,  producing 

offshoots  from  the  base. 

LEAVES Radical  and  cauline,  the  former  in  a  rosette, 

spatulate,  toothed  or  entire,  the  latter  dis- 
tant, lance-oblong,  clasping,  entire. 

PETIOLE None  on  cauline  leaves,  radical  leaves  nar- 
rowed into  a  short  petiole. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE Heads    few,    corymbose,    many-flowered,  of 

AND  BRACTS.  two  kinds  in  the  head;  peduncle  slender; 

scales  of  the  involucre  in  a  single  row, 
hairy,  narrow. 

^ESTIVATION Valvate. 

FLOWER Rays  numerous,  pistillate,  in  one  row,  disk- 
flowers  perfect. 

RECEPTACLE Flat,  naked. 

PERIANTH  (leaves)  . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Pappus  of  soft  hairs. 

COROLLA  (petals)  ....  Gamopetalous,  epigynous,  ray-flowers  narrow, 
violet,  disk-flowers  tubular,  yellow. 

STAMENS 5,  united. 

FILAMENTS.  . , . .  .Distinct. 

ANTHERS Two-celled,  syngenesious,  dehiscence  longi- 
tudinal. 

PISTIL Simple. 

OVARY Flattened  ;  one-ovuled  ;  ovule  erect. 

STYLE Two-cleft,  branches  flat,  triangular  at  apex. 

STIGMAS Stigmatic  on  the  inside  of  the  divisions  of 

the  style. 

FRUIT An  akene,  two-nerved. 

SEEDS Dicotyledonous,  exalbuminous. 

REMARKS . . 


348  APPENDIX. 

ANTENNARIA  PL  ANT  AGIN  I  FOLIA.     Plantain- leaved 
Everlasting. 

Family  COMPOSITE. 

A  common  weed,  with  crowded,  spatulate,  hoary  leaves,  and  small, 
corymbed  heads  of  white  flowers,  surrounded  by  papery  invo- 
lucres ;  woods  and  hillsides. 

Height,  3  to  18  inches.     March  to  May. 

ROOT Fibrous,  creeping. 

STEM Spreading  by  offsets  and  runners,  throwing 

up  ascending  flowering  branches,  woolly. 

LEAVES Alternate,  crowded,  spatulate,  entire,  woolly, 

on    the    flowering    stems    more    distant, 
smaller,  lanceolate,  appressed. 

PETIOLE Lower  leaves  with  margined  petiole,  upper 

leaves  sessile. 
STIPULES  None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  in  small  heads,  clustered  in  crowded 

AND  BRACTS.  corymbs  ;  involucre  of  white,   dry,   trans- 

parent scales,  broad  and  obtuse  in  the  ster- 
ile, narrow  and  acute  in  the  fertile  flowers. 

ESTIVATION Valvate,  involucre  imbricated. 

FLOWER Imperfect,  dioecious,  flowers  all  tubular  (dis- 
coid). 
RECEPTACLE Convex,  naked. 

PERIANTH  (leaves) .    . 

CALYX  (sepals) Pappus  of  a  single  row  of  bristles,  thickened 

at  the  apex  in  the  sterile  flowers,  capillary 
and  united  at  the  base  in  the  fertile  flowers. 

COROLLA  (petals)  . . .  Gamopetalous,  epigynous,  white  or  yellowish, 
tubular,  five-toothed,  the  tube  filiform  in 
the  fertile  flowers,  broader  in  the  sterile 
ones. 


APPENDIX.  849 

STAMENS 5,  united,  on  corolla. 

FILAMENTS Distinct. 

ANTHERS Arrow-shaped,    tailed,   two-celled,    syngene- 

sious,  dehiscence  longitudinal. 

PISTIL Simple. 

OVARY Inferior,  one-celled,  one-ovuled  ;  ovule  erect. 

STYLE Two-cleft  in  the  fertile  flowers,  nearly  simple 

in  the  sterile  flowers. 

STIGMA Stigmatic  on  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  divis- 
ions of  the  style. 

FRUIT An  akene. 

SEEDS 1,  dicotyledonous,  albuminous. 

KEMARKS Named  from  the  resemblance  of  the  pappus  of 

the  sterile  flowers  to  the  antennae  of  in- 
sects. 


SENECIO   AUREUS.     Golden  Ragwort. 

Family  COMPOSITES. 

A  common  perennial,  with  simple,  radical  leaves,  pinnatifid  stem- 
leaves,  and  corymbs  of  yellow  flowers.     Species  very  variable. 
Height,  1  to  2  feet.    May. 

ROOT Fibrous. 

STEM Simple,  erect,  smooth  or  woolly  when  young. 

LEAVES Alternate,  radical  leaves  simple,  ovate,  heart- 
shaped  at  base,  toothed ;  lower  stem-leaves 
lyrate,  upper  lanceolate,  pinnatifid,  thin, 
smooth. 

PETIOLE Lower  leaves  on  long  petioles,  upper  leaves 

sessile,  clasping. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE Heads,  middle-sized,  1  inch  broad,  in  corymbs. 

AND  BRACTS.  Bracts  awl- shaped. 


350  APPENDIX. 

^ESTIVATION Corolla  valvate,  involucre  scales  in  a  single 

row,  not  imbricated,  lanceolate,  green. 

FLOWER Rays  8  to  12,  pistillate,  disk-flowers  tubular, 

perfect. 

KECEPTACLE Naked,  fiat. 

PERIANTH  (leaves)  .  . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Pappus  of  soft,  white,  capillary  bristles. 

COROLLA  (petals) Rays  yellow,  five-toothed,  disk-flowers  five- 

lobed,  with  a  long,  slender  tube,  yellow, 
epigynous. 

STAMENS 5,  united,  on  corolla. 

FILAMENTS Short. 

ANTHERS  Oblong,  without  tails,  two-celled,  united,  in- 

trorse,  dehiscence  longitudinal. 

PISTIL Simple. 

OVARY  . .    Inferior,  one-celled,  one-ovuled  ;  ovule  erect. 

STYLE Two-cleft,  branches  capitate  at  the  apex. 

STIGMA Stigmatic  on  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  style- 
branches. 

FRUIT An  akene,  ribbed. 

SEEDS 1,  dicotyledonous,  exalbuminous. 

REMARKS .This  is  the  largest  genus  known. 


ROBINIA   PSEUDACACIA.     Locust. 

Family  LEGUMINOS^E. 

A  large  tree,  with  odd-pinnate  leaves,  and  white,  fragrant  flowers, 

in  showy,  hanging  racemes. 

Height,  40  to  50  feet.    June.     Cultivated  and  run  wild  in  New 
England,  native  westward  and  southward. 

ROOT Woody,  with  numerous  fibres  near  the  surface. 

STEM Exogenous,  bark  furrowed,  armed  with  stip- 

ular  thorns  when  young. 


APPENDIX.  351 

LEAVES Alternate,   compound,   odd-pinnate,   leaflets 

many,  oblong,  mucronate,  thin,  smooth, 
pale  green,  vernation  conduplicate. 

PETIOLE Swollen  at  base,  covering  the  next  season's 

buds. 

STIPULES  None,  or  sharp  thorns. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  in  long,  drooping,  axillary  racemes. 

AND  BRACTS. 

^ESTIVATION Imbricated,   the    upper    petal   covering    the 

others  in  the  bud. 

FLOWER Complete,  irregular. 

RECEPTACLE  .... 
PERIANTH  (leaves)  „ . . 

CALYX  (sepals)  Gamosepalous,    free,    slightly    five-toothed, 

oblique. 

COROLLA  (petals) Polypetalous,   adnate  to    base  of    calyx,  5 

petals,  papilionaceous,  standard  large, 
notched,  round,  wings  free,  petals  all  with 
claws. 

STAMENS 10,  united,  on  corolla. 

FILAMENTS United,  diadelphous,  9  and  1. 

ANTHERS Two-celled,  dehiscence  longitudinal. 

PISTIL Simple. 

OVARY Superior,  one-celled,  flat. 

STYLE Curved  upward  and  enclosed  with  the  sta- 
mens in  the  keel,  bearded  on  the  inner 
side. 

STIGMA Terminal  capitate. 

FRUIT A  pod,  two-valved,  flat,  margined. 

SEEDS Few,  dicotyledonous,  exalbuminous. 

REMARKS . . 


352  APPENDIX. 


TRIFOLIUM   PRATENSE.     Red  Clover. 

Family  LEGUMINOS.E. 

An  herb,  cultivated  for  fodder  and  run  wild  ;  fields. 
1  to  2  feet  high.    Native  of  Europe. 

ROOT Fibrous. 

STEM Branching  from  the  base,  at  first  decumbent, 

then  ascending. 

LEAVES Alternate,    palmately-compound,    leaflets  3, 

oval,  marked  with  a  triangular  pale  spot, 
apex  rounded  or  retuse. 

PETIOLE Long,  slender,  hairy. 

STIPULES  Large,  veiny,  bristle-pointed,  hairy,  adnate 

to  petiole. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  in  dense  heads,  surrounded  by  leafy 

AND  BRACTS.  bracts. 

^ESTIVATION Imbricated  ;  upper  petal,  enclosing  the  others 

in  the  bud. 

FLOWER Complete,  irregular. 

RECEPTACLE  .... 
PERIANTH  (leaves) . . . 

CALYX  (sepals') Gamosepalous,  free,  five- toothed,  teeth  bristle- 
form,  long,  and  hairy. 

COROLLA  (petals)  ....  Gamopetalous,  perigynous,  5  petals,  tube 
long,  standard  large,  wings  with  a  project- 
ing appendage  on  the  claw. 

STAMENS 10,  united,  on  corolla. 

FILAMENTS Diadelphous,  9  and  1. 

ANTHERS  Two-celled,  dehiscence  longitudinal. 

PISTIL Simple. 

OVARY Superior,  one-celled,  several  ovules. 

STYLE Sickle-shaped,  curving  upward. 

STIGMA Terminal,  projecting  above  the  stamens. 


APPENDIX.  353 

FRUIT A  legume,  indehiscent. 

SEEDS 1,  kidney -shaped,  dicotyledonous,  albuminous. 

EEMARKS Generally  described  as  a  perennial,  but  many 

writers  assert  positively  that  it  is  a  biennial. 


PISUM   SATIVUM.     Common  Pea. 

Family  LEGUMINOS^E. 
A  weak,  climbing  herb,  cultivated.    Flowering  in  early  Summer. 

ROOT Fibrous. 

STEM Weak,  climbing,  smooth,  angled,  hollow. 

LEAVES ,  Compound,  1  to  3  pairs,  alternate,  pinnate, 

ending  in  a  tendril,  leaflets  ovate,  retuse, 
pinnately  veined,  smooth,  glaucous. 

PETIOLE  „ None. 

STIPULES Large,  leaf -like,  ovate,  oblique,  crenate,  base 

cordate. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  axillary,  2  or  3  together. 

AND  BRACTS. 

^ESTIVATION  .... Imbricated,  upper  petal  covering  the  others 

in  the  bud.     (See  diagrams,  p.  240.) 

FLOWER Complete,  irregular. 

RECEPTACLE  . . .  .Flat. 
PERIANTH  (leaves) . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Gamosepalous,  free,  flve-lobed,  lobes  lance- 
ovate,  slightly  two- lipped,  persistent. 

COROLLA  (petals) Polypetalous,     perigynous,     papilionaceous, 

white,  standard  large,  erect,  notched,  wings 
roundish,  longer  than  the  curved  keel. 

STAMENS 10,  diadelphous,  perigynous. 

FILAMENTS United  for  about  half  their  length. 

ANTHERS Dorsifixed,    introrse,   two-celled,   dehiscence 

longitudinal. 


354  APPENDIX. 

PISTIL Simple. 

OVARY  One-celled,  with  1  parietal  placenta,  oblong, 

ovules  few. 

STYLE Flattened,  incurved,  bearded,  sickle-shaped. 

STIGMA Simple,  terminal. 

FRUIT A  two-valved  legume. 

SEEDS Few,  round,  with  two  thick  cotyledons,  ex- 
albuminous. 
REMARKS Little  visited  by  insects. 

LUPINUS    PERENNIS.     Lupine. 

Family  LEGUMINOS.E. 

A  perennial  herb,  with  palmate  leaves,  and  showy  racemes  of  blue 

flowers  ;  sandy  soil. 
Height,  1  to  2  feet.    June. 

ROOT A  thick  tap-root. 

STEM Simple,  erect,  hairy. 

LEAVES Alternate,  palmately-compound,  leaflets  7  to 

15,  oblanceolate,  obtuse,  silvery- haired  be- 
neath, vernation  conduplicate. 

PETIOLE Long,  hairy. 

STIPULES Adnate  to  stem. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  in  long,  loose  racemes.   Bracts  cadu- 

AND  BRACTS.  cous. 

ESTIVATION Imbricated,  upper  petals  covering  the  others 

in  the  bud. 

FLOWER Complete,  irregular,  symmetrical. 

RECEPTACLE  ....  Flat. 
PERIANTH  (leaves)  . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Gamosepalous,  united  to  base  of  ovary,  five- 

lobed,  two-lipped. 

COROLLA  (petals) ....  Polypetalous,  perigynous,  5  petals,   papilio- 
naceous, purple-blue. 


APPENDIX.  355 

STAMENS 10,  monadelphous,  perigynous. 

FILAMENTS United. 

ANTHERS Of  two  forms,  one  form  fertile,  oblong,  large, 

dehiscence  longitudinal,  the  other  sterile, 
club-shaped. 

PISTIL Simple,  joined  to  base  of  calyx. 

OVARY   One-celled,  sickle-shaped,  ovules  many. 

STYLE Curved,  longer  than  stamens. 

STIGMA Terminal. 

FRUIT A  hairy,  oblong  legume,  sometimes  constricted 

between  the  joints,  brown  when  ripe. 

SEEDS Smooth,  round,  large,  cotyledons  fleshy,  ex- 
albuminous. 
REMARKS . . 


IRIS   VERSICOLOR.    Blue  Flag. 

Family  IRIDACE.E. 

A  perennial  herb,  with  showy,  blue,  terminal  flowers  and  equitant 

leaves,  growing  in  marshy  places. 
Height,  1  to  3  feet.     Flowering  in  early  Summer. 

ROOT Fibrous  from  an  uneven,  creeping  rootstock. 

STEM A  rootstock,  throwing  up  erect,  stout,  angled 

branches,  fleshy. 

LEAVES Alternate,  parallel- veined,  sword-shaped,  12 

to  18  inches  long,  equitant. 

PETIOLE None. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  in  terminal,  few-flowered  cymes,  en- 

AND  BRACTS.  closed  singly  or  in  twos  in  a  spathe  of  scaly 

bracts. 
^ESTIVATION Calyx  convolute,  corolla  open. 


356  APPENDIX. 

FLOWER Complete,  regular,  symmetrical. 

PERIANTH  (leaves) .  . .  Six-parted,  epigynous,  the  three  outer  divis- 
ions recurved,  blue,  variegated  with  green 
and  yellow,  and  purple- veined,  the  three 
inner  leaves  smaller,  erect,  spatulate,  blue. 

CALYX  (sepals) 

COROLLA  (petals)  .... 

STAMENS 3,  distinct,  on  outer  divisions  of  the  perianth. 

FILAMENTS Flat  and  tapering,  about  the  same  length  as 

the  anther. 

ANTHER Linear,  two-celled,  basifixed,  extrorse,  dehis- 

cence  longitudinal. 

PISTIL 3  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY Inferior,  three-celled,    central   placentation ; 

ovules  many. 

STYLE Three-parted,  the  divisions  petal-like,  two- 

lobed,   opposite  the  stamens  which  they 
overarch. 

STIGMA A  lip  near  the  apex  of  each  division,  stig- 

matic  on  the  upper  side. 

FRUIT A  capsule,  triangular  with  rounded  angles, 

loculicidal. 

SEEDS Flattened,  many,  monocotyledonous,  albu- 
minous. 

REMARKS . . 


KALMIA   LATIFOLIA.     Mountain-Laurel. 

Family  ERICACEJE. 

A  shrub,  with  ample  corymbs  of  showy  pink-and- white  flowers  and 

shining  evergreen  leaves  ;  woods  and  rocky  hillsides. 

Height,  4  to  10  feet.     June. 

ROOT Woody,  branching. 


APPENDIX.  357 

STEM Exogenous,  erect,  branching,  smooth. 

LEAVES Alternate,    clustered   near  the   ends  of    the 

branches,  simple,  pinnate- veined,  oval, 
acute,  entire,  evergreen,  coriaceous,  smooth, 
shining. 

PETIOLE Short,  smooth. 

STIPULES  None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  in  terminal  corymbs.     Bracts  awl- 

AXD  BRACTS.  shaped  ;  pedicels  hairy  and  sticky. 

ESTIVATION Valvate. 

FLOWER Complete,  regular,  symmetrical,  sticky. 

PERIANTH  (leaves) . .  . 

CALYX  (sepals) Gamosepalous,  free,  deeply  five-cleft,  divis- 
ions lance-linear. 

COROLLA  (petals) Gamopetalous,  free,  wheel-shaped  at  base, 

contracted  into  a  short  tube  below,  the 
wheel  with  ten  spokes  ending  in  pockets 
in  the  bell- shaped,  plaited,  five-lobed  bor- 
der, white  or  rose. 

STAMENS 10,  distinct,  free. 

FILAMENTS Elastic,  bent  back,  flying  up  when  released. 

ANTHERS  . . .  Dorsifixed,  dehiscing  by  holes  in  the  apex, 

erect  in  the  bud,  fitting  into  the  pockets  of 
the  corolla  in  the  flower. 

PISTII Compound,  5  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY  Superior,  hairy,  five-celled,  placentation  cen- 
tral. 

STYLE 1,  recurved. 

STIGMA Capitate. 

FRUIT A  capsule,  globose,  hairy. 

SEEDS Many,  dicotyledonous,  albuminous. 

REMARKS Not  setting  seed  when  un visited  by  insects. 


358  APPENDIX. 

DIERVILLA  TRIFIDA.     Bush-Honeysuckle. 

Family  CAPRIFOLIACEA:. 

A  shrub  with  erect  stems,  and  small,  yellow  flowers  in  terminal 

and  axillary  cymes  ;  rocks  and  hillsides. 

Height,  1  to  4  feet.     June. 

ROOT Fibrous. 

STEM Woody,  exogenous,  erect,  spreading  by  suck- 
ers, which  throw  up  simple,  wand-like, 
leafy  branches. 

LEAVES , Opposite,     pinnate-veined,    ovate- lanceolate, 

acuminate,  finely  crenate,  thin,  smooth. 

PETIOLE Short,  channelled. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  in  three- flowered  cymes,  in  the  axils 

AND  BRACTS.  of  the  upper  leaves,  and  terminal.    Bracts 

minute. 

^ESTIVATION Corolla  imbricated. 

FLOWER Complete,  slightly  irregular. 

PERIANTH  (leaves)  . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Epigynous,  five-parted,  divisions  awl-shaped, 

persistent. 

COROLLA  (petals) ....  Gamopetalous,  epigynous,  funnel-shaped, 
obliquely  five-lobed,  lobes  oblong,  reflexed, 
yellow,  lower  lobe  large,  slightly  crested, 
golden,  with  a  nectar-gland  at  its  base. 

STAMENS 5,  alternate,  on  corolla. 

FILAMENTS United  with  corolla  for  about  half  their  length, 

exserted. 

ANTHERS Dorsifixed,    introrse,   two-celled,   dehiscence 

longitudinal. 

PISTIL 2  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY Inferior,    two-celled,    placentation    central; 

ovules  many. 


APPENDIX.  359 

STYLE Slender,  exserted. 

STIGMA Capitate. 

FRUIT A  capsule,  oblong,  with  a  tapering  beak,  two- 
celled,  septicidal. 

SEEDS Many,  dicotyledonous. 

REMARKS  


CONVOLVULUS   SEPIUM. 

Family  CONVOLVULACE^S. 

A  common,  twining  perennial,  with  sagittate  leaves  and  rose- 
colored  or  white  axillary  flowers.    Flowering  in  Summer. 

ROOT Fibrous,  from  a  filiform  roots tock. 

STEM Twining  or  trailing,  slightly  downy,  marked 

with  dark  lines. 

LEAVES Alternate,  simple,  sagittate,  acute,  hairy  on 

the  veins  beneath. 

PETIOLE Round,  hairy  above. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  solitary  in  the  axils,  enclosed  in  the 

AND  BRACTS.  bud  in  two  acute,  heart-shaped  bracts  ;  pe- 

duncle four-ribbed. 

^ESTIVATION Calyx  imbricated,  corolla  convolute,  plaited 

on  the  ribs. 

FLOWER Regular,  complete,  symmetrical. 

PERIANTH  (leaves)  . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Polysepalous,  free,  5  sepals,  lance-ovate. 

COROLLA  (petals) ....  Gamopetalous,  free,  trumpet- shaped,  ob- 
scurely five-lbbed,  five-ribbed,  rose-color, 
the  ribs  white. 

STAMENS „ 5,  distinct,  on  corolla. 

FILAMENTS Included,  enlarged  and  hairy  at  base,  and 

conniving  around  the  style. 


360  APPENDIX. 

ANTHERS Basifixed,    two-celled,   dehiscence  longitudi- 
nal, sagittate  at  base. 

PISTIL 2  carpels,  syncarpous. 

OVARY Superior,  one-celled  or  two-celled,  placenta- 

tion  central. 

STYLE Slender,  included. 

STIGMA Two-lobed,  lobes  oblong. 

FRUIT A  capsule,  globose,  opening  by  valves. 

SEEDS 2,  dicotyledonous,  albuminous. 

REMARKS There  are  five  openings  to  the  nectar,  be- 
tween the  bases  of  the  filaments.  The 
nectar  is  well  protected  from  theft  and  rain 
by  the  connivent  hairy  filaments. 


LYCOPERSICUM   ESCULENTUM.     Tomato. 

Family  SOLANACE.E. 

A  common  perennial  garden- plant,  cultivated  for  its  fruit. 
June. 

HOOT Fibrous. 

STEM Herbaceous,  erect,  very  bristly-hairy,  fleshy. 

LEAVES Alternate,  pinnately-compound,  the  divisions 

irregularly  lobed  and  cut,  with  smaller  leaf- 
lets intermixed. 

PETIOLE Round,  fleshy,  hairy. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  in  terminal,  cymose  clusters,  becom- 

AND  BRACTS.  ing  lateral  and  extra-axillary. 

^ESTIVATION Valvate,  corolla  induplicate. 

FLOWER Complete,  regular. 

RECEPTACLE  .... 
PERIANTH  (leaves) . . . 


APPENDIX.  361 

CALYX  (sepals) Five-parted,  free,  divisions  lance-linear,  hairy. 

COROLLA  (petals) Gamopetalous,  free,  rotate,  five-lobed,   lobes 

lance-ovate,  somewhat  reflexed,  yellow. 

STAMENS 5,  distinct,  joined  to  base  of  corolla. 

FILAMENTS Very  short. 

ANTHERS Basifixed,  two-celled,  connivent,  the  tips  ex- 
tended, united,  and  somewhat  recurved; 
pollen  powdery. 

PISTIL Carpels  5  or  more,  syncarpous. 

OVAKV  Imperfectly   celled,   placentae  large ;    ovules 

many. 

STYLE Short  and  thick. 

STIGMA Terminal. 

FRUIT A  berry,  large,  red,  smooth,   and  shining ; 

the   placentae   form   most  of   the  eatable 
pulp. 

SEEDS Many,  dicotyledonous,  albuminous. 

REMARKS The  number  of  parts  is  generally  much  in- 
creased in  cultivation. 


ASCL.EPIAS  TUBEROSA.    Butterfly- Weed. 

Family  ASCLEPIADACE^E. 

A  perennial,   with  erect,   leafy  stems,    and  terminal  umbels  of 

showy,  orange-red  flowers  ;  dry  hills  and  fields. 

June. 

ROOT Thick  and  deep. 

STEM Erect,  leafy  to  the  top,  branching,  hairy. 

LEAVES ? Alternate  and  opposite,  simple,  lance-linear, 

veins  much  reticulated,  hairy  on  the  mid- 
rib beneath. 

PETIOLE Short  or  none. 

STIPULES  .         .  .None. 


362  APPENDIX. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers    in    terminal    umbels,    the    umbels 

AND  BRACTS.  approaching    each   other   and   forming    a 

corymb.     Bracts  small,  lanceolate. 

ESTIVATION Valvate.     (See  diagrams,  p.  260.) 

FLOWER Complete,  regular,  symmetrical. 

KECEPTACLE  

PERIANTH  (leaves) .  . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Deeply  five-parted,  free,  divisions  5,  lanceo- 
late, reflexed,  green. 

COROLLA  (petals) Deeply  five-parted,  the  oblong  divisions  re- 
flexed,  orange  color. 

STAMENS 5,  united  with  each  other  and  with  the  stigma. 

FILAMENTS United  in  a  column,  bearing  5  hooded  nec- 
taries opposite  the  anthers,  each  containing 
a  sharp,  incurved  horn. 

ANTHERS Two-celled,  flat,  introrse,  each  cell  winged, 

leaving  a  slit  between  adjacent  wings,  at 
the  top  of  which  is  a  black  gland,  uniting 
adjacent  pollen- masses. 

PISTIL 2  carpels,  united  only  by  a  disk  above  the 

true  stigmas. 

OVARIES 2,  separate,  one-celled,  many  ovuled. 

STYLES Short,  included  in  the  staminal  tube. 

STIGMAS United  by  a  fleshy,  five-angled   disk,  above 

the  stigmatic  surface,  which  can  be  reached 
only  through  the  slits  between  the  anthers. 

FRUIT A  pair  of  follicles,  often  only  one  developing, 

pedicel  deflexed  in  fruit. 

SEEDS Many,  dicotyledonous,  albuminous,  bearing 

a  tuft  of  silky  hairs. 

REMARKS The  visits  of  insects  are  necessary  to  fertilize 

this  flower. 


APPENDIX.  363 

APOCYNUM  ANDROS^BMIFOLIUM.     Spreading  Dogbane. 

Family  APOCYNACE/E. 

A  smooth,  branching  perennial,  with  opposite,  simple,  entire  leaves, 
and  small  rose-colored  and  white  flowers  in  compound  cymes, 
common  ;  roadsides  and  thickets. 

Height,  2  feet.    June,  July. 

ROOT Fibrous. 

STEM Erect,  branching,  very  smooth,  bark  tough. 

LEAVES Opposite,  simple,  pinnate-veined,  ovate,  mu- 

cronate,  entire,  smooth  above,  downy  be- 
neath. 

PETIOLE Very  short. 

STIPULES None. 

INFLORESCENCE.  ..  ...Flowers    in    terminal,     compound     cymes. 

AND  BRACTS.  Bracts  awl- shaped,  minute. 

^ESTIVATION Calyx  imbricated,    corolla   convolute.     (See 

diagrams,  p.  264.) 

FLOWER Complete,  regular,  about  4  lines  broad. 

PERIANTH  (leaves) . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) ......  Gamosepalous,  free,  five-lobed,  lobes  acute. 

COROLLA  (petals) Gamopetalous,  free,  bell-shaped,  five-toothed, 

the  teeth  revolute,  5  triangular  appendages 
near  the  base  opposite  the  lobes. 

STAMENS 5,  distinct,  on  corolla ;  alternating  with  the 

stamens  are  5  nectar-glands. 

FILAMENTS Bent  inwards,  short  and  thick,  hairy. 

ANTHERS Sagittate,  dorsifixed,  extrorse,  conniving  over 

the  pistil,  connective  prolonged  into  a  mem- 
branaceous  tip,  base  curving  outward  ;  pol- 
len granular. 

PISTIL 2  carpels,  united  by  the  styles. 

OVARIES 2,  separate,  one-celled,  many  ovuled. 


364  APPENDIX. 

STYLE Short,  thick,  divided  across  the  centre,  upper 

division  two-lobed,  glutinous,  non-stigmatic. 

STIGMA Stigmatic  just  below  the  division  of  the  style. 

FBUIT A  pair  of  slender  follicles. 

SEEDS Many,  dicotyledonous,  albuminous,  with   a 

tuft  of  silky  hairs  at  the  apex. 
REMARKS The  fruit  seldom  forms. 

NYMPHS  A   ODOR  AT  A.     Water-Lily . 

Family  NYMPHJEACE^E. 

An  aquatic  perennial,  with  large,  floating,  heart-shaped  leaves,  and 
pure-white  flowers  with  golden  stamens  and  pistil ;  ponds  and  still 
streams,  common. 

June  to  September. 

ROOT From  a  thick  rootstock. 

STEM  . . .' Rootstock,  obscurely  exogenous,  submerged 

in  soft  mud. 

LEAVES Radical,    floating,     simple,    palmate-veined, 

heart-shaped,  entire,  thick,  dark  shining 
green  above,  often  red  beneath,  involute  in 
the  bud. 

PETIOLE Rising  to  the  surface  of  the  water. 

STIPULES   Close  to  the  rootstock,  triangular  or  kidney- 
shaped. 

INFLORESCENCE Flowers  solitary,  axillary.     Bracts  none ;  pe- 

AND  BRACTS.  duncle  pierced  with  tubes. 

^ESTIVATION Imbricated. 

PERIANTH  (leaves)  . . . 

CALYX  (sepals) Polysepalous  and  free,  or  nearly  so,  sepals  4, 

ovate,  obtuse,  green  without,  tinged  with 
pink. 

COROLLA  (petals) Polypetalous,    perigynous,    numerous,    oval, 

obtuse,  concave,  pure  white,  gradually 
passing  into  the  stamens. 


APPENDIX.  365 

STAMENS Many,  distinct,  perigynous. 

FILAMENTS Outer  broad,  becoming  slender  towards  the 

centre  of  the  flower. 

ANTHERS Adnate,  introrse,  two-celled,  dehiscence  lon- 
gitudinal. 

PISTIL Compound,  carpels  numerous,  syncarpous. 

OVARY Many-celled  ;  ovules  on  the  walls,  except  at 

the  ventral  suture. 

STYLE None. 

STIGMAS Radiate  from  a  globular  head  at  the  top  of 

the  axis ;  ending  in  sterile,  incurved  tips, 
golden  yellow. 

FRUIT A  capsule,  maturing  under  water,  covered 

by  the  withered  petals. 

SEEDS Many,  dicotyledonous,  albuminous,  with  an 

aril. 

REMARKS The  flowers  open  in  the  morning  and  close  at 

nightfall,  lasting  several  days  ;    they  are 
very  fragrant. 

We  need  a  special  form  of  description  for  grasses.  The  homology 
of  the  parts  is  so  much  disputed  that  it  is  not  wise  for  us  to  attempt 
to  classify  them  under  the  heads  of  bracts  and  perianth.  It  is 
better  to  use  special  names,  as  glumes,  palet,  and  lodicules. 

ANTHOXANTHUM   ODORATUM.    Sweet-Vernal  Grass. 

Family  GRAMINE^:. 

A  low,  perennial  grass,  fragrant  in  drying,  but  not  much  liked  by 

cattle,  common  in  pastures  and  meadows. 

Height,  1  to  2  feet.    May  to  July. 

ROOTS Fibrous. 

STEM .Erect,  hollow,  smooth,  slender. 


366  APPENDIX. 

LEAVES Simple,    alternate,    parallel-veined,    slightly 

hairy,  ligule  oblong,  obtuse,  sheath  slightly 
inflated. 

PETIOLE None. 

STIPULES  None. 

INFLORESCENCE  OF.  .  .A  terminal  contracted  panicle. 
CLUSTER 

SPIKELETS One-flowered,  flower  apparently  terminal. 

GLUMES Empty  glumes  4,   first  glume  thin,   ovate, 

one-nerved,  half  as  long  as  the  second, 
which  is  thin  and  three-nerved ;  third  glume 
notched  at  the  apex,  and  long-awned  on 
the  back,  from  below  the  middle,  hairy ; 
fourth  glume  similar,  short-awned  from 
below  the  tip. 
FLOWERING  GLUME  .  .Round,  obtuse,  transparent. 

PALET Like  the  flowering  glume. 

LODICULES None. 

STAMENS 2,  distinct. 

FILAMENTS Exserted,  slender. 

ANTHERS  Two-celled,  versatile  ;  pollen  powdery. 

PISTIL Simple. 

OVARY  One-celled,  one-ovuled. 

STYLE None. 

STIGMAS 2,  long  and  feathery  (plumose). 

FRUIT A  caryopsis. 

SEED 1,  monocotyledonous,  with  floury  albumen, 

grain  adherent  to  the  palet. 

The  schedule  on  the  following  page  does  not  pretend  to  be  com- 
plete. It  is  the  work  of  a  pupil  of  sixteen  who  had  taken  six  lessons 
on  flowers.  Only  the  characters  differing  from  those  of  the  Cherry 
are  given  in  the  second  and  third  columns. 


APPENDIX. 


367 


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INDEX   AND    GLOSSARY. 


Abortive,  imperfect,  rudimentary. 
Acaulescent,  apparently  stemless, 

the  stem  subterranean. 
Accessory,  something  additional ; 

accessor^/  buds,  I.  90 ;  accessory 

fruits,  II.  148. 

Accumbent  cotyledons,  II.  231. 
Achlamydeous,  without  floral  en- 
velopes. 

Acorn,  the  fruit  of  the  Oak,  II.  113. 
Acuminate,  tapering  to  a  point. 
Acute,  ending  in  a  point  less  than 

a  right  angle,  1. 125. 
Adnate,   growing   to,    adherent; 

ndnate  anther,  II.  59, 
Adnation,  II.  6. 
Adventitious,  out  of  its  normal 

place ;  adventitious  buds,  I.  46, 

82. 

Aerial  roots,  I.  40. 
^Estivation,   the  arrangement  of 

the  parts  in  a  flower-bud,  II.  46, 

182. 

Aggregate  fruits,  II.  148. 
Air,  purification  of  the,  I.  5. 
Air-plants,  II.  173. 
Akene,  or  achenium,  II.  73,  135. 
Alse,  wings,  II.  234. 


Albumen  of  the  seed,  food  stored 

outside  of  the  embryo,  I.  25. 
Albuminous,  possessing  albumen, 

I.  26,  II.  231. 

Alternate  (leaves),  one  at  each 
joint  of  stem,  I.  94;  parts  in  a 
flower-bud,  II.  184. 

Ament,  II.  106-208. 

Amphitropous,  ovules  or  seeds, 

II.  229. 

Anatropous,  ovules  or  seeds,  II. 

229. 

Androecium,  the  whole  male  por- 
tion of  the  flower,  II.  82,  note. 
Androgynous,  having  male  and 

female    flowers    in    the    same 

cluster,  II.  169. 
Androus,    used    in    compounds, 

meaning  of  the  stamens. 
Anemophilous,  flowers  fertilized 

by  the  wind,  II.  103. 
Angiospermous,  with  seeds  in  a 

closed  ovary,  II.  86. 
Angular,    divergence   of   leaves, 

I.  95. 
Annual,  a  plant  which  flowers, 

fruits,  and  dies  in  a  single  year. 

1.42. 


370 


INDEX    AND   GLOSSARY. 


Anther,  the  pollen-bearing  por- 
tion of  the  stamen,  II.  19. 

Apetalous,  without  petals;  clas- 
sification of  apetalous  plants, 
II.  56. 

Apocarpous,  having  separate  car- 
pels, II.  82. 

Appendage,  a  superadded  part, 
as  the  crown  in  Narcissus,  II.  16, 
or  the  nectar-secreting  part  of 
the  stamens  of  Violet,  II.  92. 

Approximate  (anthers),  II.  191. 

Aril,  a  growth  from  the  base  of  a 
seed,  II.  232. 

Ascending,  rising  obliquely  up- 
ward, I.  103. 

Assimilation,  1. 133. 

Auricle,  an  ear-like  appendage, 
II.  91. 

Awn,  a  bristle  (grasses),  II.  271. 

Axil,  the  angle  on  the  upper  side 
between  a  leaf  and  the  stem, 

I.  31. 

Axile,  belonging  to  the  axis,  in 

the  axis,  II.  84. 
Axillary  (buds,  etc.),  occurring  in 

an  axil,  I.  57,  II.  205. 
Axis,  the  central  line  of  any  body, 

root  and  stem. 

Barbed,  II.  214. 

Bark,  the  covering  of  a  stem  out- 
side the  wood,  I.  114. 

Base,  the  part  of  an  organ  which 
is  attached  to  its  support. 

Basifixed,  attached  by  the  base, 

II.  19,  62. 
Beak,  II.  213. 


Berry,  II.  146. 

Biennial,  a  plant  whose  growth  is 

continued  through  two  seasons 

only,  I.  42. 

Bilabiate,  two-lipped,  II.  191. 
Blade,  the  expanded  portion  of  a 

leaf,  1. 121 ;  II.  270. 
Border,  the  spreading  part  of  a 

gamopetalous  corolla. 
Botany,  the  science  of  plants,  1. 1. 
Bract,    the    modified    leaf    of    a 

flower-cluster,  II.  72,  201). 
Bractlet,  a  bract  on  the  flower- 
stalk. 

Branch,  I.  55. 
Breathing-pores,  I,  126. 
Bud,  an  undeveloped  branch,  I. 

55;  bud-scars,  I.  57 ;  bud-scales, 

1.56. 
Bulb,  I.  50. 

Caducous,  II.  114. 

Calyx,  the  outer  circle  of  perianth 

leaves,  II.  18;  uses  of,  II.  42. 
Cambium,  cambium-layer,  I.  114. 
Campylotropous,  ovules  or  seeds, 

II.  189,  230. 

Capitate,  having  a  globular  apex. 
Capsule,  II.  145. 
Carina,  keel,  II.  234. 
Carpel,  a  pistil  leaf,  II.  19,  82. 
Catkin,  II.  105,  208. 
Caruncle,  II.  160, 164. 
Caudicle,  II.  180. 
Caulicle,  the  rudimentary  stem  of 

the  embryo,  I.  27. 
Cauline,  belonging  to  the  stem,  II. 

156. 


INDEX    AND   GLOSSARY. 


371 


Cell,  I.  112;    anther  cell,  II.  59; 

cells  of  ovary,  II.  84. 
Cellular  tissue,  I.  112. 
Chaff,  II.  219. 
Chalaza,  II.  228. 
Character,  a  phrase  expressing  a 

distinctive  feature  of  a  genus, 

species,  etc. 

Chlorophyll,  the  green  coloring- 
matter  of  leaves,  I.  136. 
Choripetalous,  same  as  polypeta- 

lous,  II.  27,  note. 
Circinate,  I.  92. 
Circumnutation.  I.  107. 
Classification,  difficulties  in,  II. 

29;  natural,  II.  31. 
Claw,  the  narrow  base  of  a  petal. 
Cleistogamous,  cleistogamic,   II. 

95,  164. 

Cleft,  cut  into  deep  lobes. 
Close  fertilization,  II.  95. 
Clothing,  use  of  plants  for,  I.  5. 
Climbing  plants,  I.  103,  105-109. 
Coherent,  organs  united   in   the 

same  circle. 
Colored,   applied    to   organs   not 

green. 
Column,  the  united  stamens,  II. 

49;    or  the  stamens  and  pistil 

united,  II.  174. 
Coma,  II.  107. 

Complete  flower,  II.  18 ;  leaf,  1. 121.   j 
Compound  leaf,  1. 122 ;  compound   { 

pistil,  II.  83,  144. 
Concealed  spur,  II.  41. 
Conduplicate,  I.  66,  80,  92. 
Cone,  the  fruit  of  the  Pine  Family 

(Coniferae),  II.  130. 


Conical  root,  I.  40. 

Connective,  the  part  of  an  anther 
connecting  its  two  cells,  II.  59. 

Connivent,  brought  close  together, 
II.  93. 

Contracted,  narrowed  or  short- 
ened. 

Convolute  aestivation,  II.  47,  183. 

Corpuscula,  II.  260. 

Cordate,  heart-shaped. 

Corky  layer,  I.  115. 

Corm,  a  solid  bulb,  like  that  of 
Crocus,  I.  51 ;  II.  13. 

Corolla,  the  inner  set  of  flower- 
leaves,  II.  18 ;  uses  of,  II.  42. 

Corona,  a  crown,  an  appendage 
to  the  corolla,  II.  16. 

Corrugate,  I.  92. 

Corymb,  II.  208. 

Cotyledon,  an  embryo  leaf,  I.  22. 

Creeping  (stems),  I.  103. 

Crenate,  scalloped. 

Cross-fertilization,  II.  32 

Crown,  see  corona. 

Cryptogams,  flowerless  plants,  II. 
131. 

Culm,  the  stem  of  grasses  and 
sedges,  II.  270. 

Cut,  incised. 

Cycle,  one  complete  turn  of  a  spire. 

Cyme,  II.  209. 

Cymose,  II.  210. 

Deciduous,  falling  off,  used  to  de- 
scribe leaves  which  fall  in  au- 
tumn, and  calyx  and  corolla, 
which  fall  before  the  ripening 
of  the  fruit. 


372 


INDEX    AND   GLOSSARY. 


Declined,  beut  downwards,  II.  35. 

Decurrent  (leaves) ,  prolonged 
downward  on  the  stem. 

Definite  growth,  I.  86. 

Definite  inflorescence,  II.  206. 

Dehiscence  of  anthers,  II.  63;  of 
pods,  II.  228. 

Dehiscent,  splitting  open  at  ma- 
turity. 

Deliquescent,  I.  82. 

Dentate,  toothed. 

Depressed,  flattened. 

Descending,  tending  downwards; 
the  root  is  the  descending  axis ; 
inflorescence,  II.  210. 

Descriptions  of  leaves,  1. 124. 

Determinate  inflorescence,  II.  53, 
206. 

Diadelphous  (stamens),  II.  235. 

Dichogamy,  II.  41. 

Dicotyledonous,  having  two  coty- 
ledons, I.  34,  119. 

Didynamous  (stamens),  II.  191. 

Diffuse,  widely  spreading. 

Dimorphous,  of  two  forms,  II.  97. 

Dioecious,  with  stamens  and  pis- 
tils on  separate  plants,  I.  85;  II. 
74,  169. 

Discoid,  II.  221. 

Disk,  an  expansion  of  the  recep- 
tacle, II.  118;  the  centre  of  a 
composite  flower  with  rays,  II. 
218. 

Disk-flowers,  the  flowers  belong- 
ing to  the  disk,  II.  218. 

Dissected,  cut  into  many  divis- 
ions. 

Distichous,  two-ranked,  I.  97. 


Distinct,  uncombiued,  separate. 

Divided  (leaves),  cut  to  the  mid- 
rib or  base. 

Dorsal,  pertaining  to  the  back  of 
an  organ ;  dorsal  suture,  II.  228. 

Dorsifixed  (anthers),  II.  19,  62. 

Double  flowers,  II.  277. 

Downy,  clothed  with  soft  hairs. 

Drupe,  a  stone  fruit,  II.  146. 

Drupelet,  a  little  drupe,  II.  147. 

Dry  fruit,  II.  143. 

Ducts,  I.  112. 

Elliptical,    oval,    with    rounded 

ends. 
Embryo,  the  plantlet  in  the  seed, 

1.22. 
Endogenous,    inside-growing,    I. 

120. 

Endosperm,  II.  231. 
Entire,  margin  uncut. 
Epidermis,  the  skin  of  a  plant,  I. 

115. 
Epigynous,  upon  the  ovary,  II. 

15,58. 

Epipetalous,  borne  upon  the  pet- 
als, II.  58. 

Epiphyte,  an  air-plant,  II.  173. 
Equal,  alike  in  length. 
Equitant  (leaves) ,  II.  244. 
Erect,  I.  103. 
Essential  organs,  the  stamens  and 

pistil,  II.  34. 
Exalbuminous  (seeds),  I.  26;  II. 

231. 

Excurrent,  I.  82. 
Exogenous,    outside-growing,    I. 

114. 


INDEX    AND   GLOSSARY. 


373 


Exserted,  protruding,  II.  202. 
Exstipulate,  without  stipules. 
Extrorse,  facing  outwards,  II.  60. 

False  racemes,  II.  210. 
Fascicle,  II.  129. 
Feather-veined,  1. 123. 
Female  flower,  one  bearing  pistils 

only. 
Fertile,  capable  of  bearing  fruit ; 

fertile  anthers,  bearing  pollen. 
Fertilization,  II.  33. 
Fibres,  I.  112. 
Fibrous  roots,  I.  41. 
Fibro-vascular  bundles,  1. 58,  112. 
Filament,  the  stalk  of  a  stamen, 

II.  18. 

Filiform,  thread-shaped. 
Fleshy  root,  I.  40,  41 ;  fleshy  fruit, 

II.  143. 
Flora,  the  plants  of  a  country  or 

neighborhood,  or  a  systematic 

work  describing  them. 
Floral  envelopes,  the  calyx  and 

corolla,  II.  18. 
Floret,  a  single  small  flower  of  a 

head,  II.  218. 
Flower,  II.  275. 

Flower-bud,  an  unopened  flower. 
Flower-cluster  scars,  I.  60. 
Flowering  glume,  II.  271. 
Flowering  plants,  II.  131. 
Flowerless  plants,  II.  131. 
Foliaceous,  of    the  nature  of  a 

leaf. 

Follicle,  II.  73,  144. 
Food,  of  seedlings,  I.  25,  35. 
Food-producers,  plants  as,  I.  3. 


Foot-stalk,  the  stalk  of  leaf  or 

flower. 
Forked,  branched  into  two,  three, 

or  more  branches. 
Free,  not  united  with  other  parts ; 

free   central    placenta,    II.  86, 

101,  189. 

Fruit,  the  ripened  ovary,  II.  143. 
Fugacious,  early  falling  off,  II.  77. 
Fuel,  use  of,  plants  for,  I.  9. 

Gamopetalous,  petals  united,  II. 

10. 
Gamophyllous,    perianth    leaves 

united,  II.  10. 
Gamosepalous,  sepals  united,  il. 

10,  27. 
Genus    (plural    yenera),   a    rank 

above  species. 
Germ,  embryo,  I.  22. 
Germination,  I.  22. 
Glabrous,  smooth. 
Glands,  secreting  organs:  also  ap- 
plied   to    small    swellings,    II. 

192. 
Glaucous,  pale,  and  covered  with 

a  white  bloom,  II.  159. 
Glumaceous,  having  glumes,  II. 

275. 

Glume,  II.  271. 
Grain,  the  fruit  of  grasses. 
Growth    of    branches,   I.    74;    of 

caulicle,   I.   27;    of  roots,  I.  44, 

47;  of  stems,  1.43,44. 
Gymnospermous,  II.  86. 
Gymnosperms,  II.  124,  132. 
Gynoecium,  II.  81. 
Gynostegium,  II.  261. 


374 


INDEX   AND    GLOSSARY. 


Habit,  the  mode  of  growth. 
Habitat,  the  situation  or  country 

in  which  a  plant  grows  in  a  wild 

state. 
Halberd -shaped,  or  hastate,  with 

spreading  lobes  at  the  base. 
Head  (inflorescence) ,  II.  208. 
Heart-wood,  I.  118. 
Herb,  a  plant  which  is  not  woody. 
Herbaceous,  not  woody. 
Herbarium,  a  systematic  collec- 
tion of  dried  plants. 
Hermaphrodite,  same  as  perfect, 

a  flower  having  both  stamens 

and  pistils. 
Hesperidium,  II.  146. 
Hilum,  II.  189,  228. 
Homologous,  modified  from  the 

same  organ. 

Hybrid,  a  cross  between  species. 
Hypogynous,  under  the  pistil,  II. 

49,  58. 

Imbricated  (inflorescence),  II. 
183. 

Imperfect  flowers,  wanting  one 
of  the  essential  organs,  II.  74. 

Incised,  cut  deeply  and  irregu- 
larly. 

Incomplete,  wanting  one  or  more 
of  the  four  circles,  calyx,  corolla, 
stamens,  or  pistil. 

Incumbent  (cotyledons),  II.  232. 

Indefinite,  I.  86 ;  II.  206. 

Indehiscent,  not  splitting  open^ 
II.  73,  145. 

Indeterminate,  II.  206. 

Indigenous,  native  to  the  country. 


Induplicate,  II.  183. 

Inferior,  below,  inferior  ovary, 
II.  17. 

Inflexed,  I.  88,  II.  199. 

Inflorescence,  the  arrangement  of 
the  flowers  on  a  plant,  II.  205. 

Innate  (anthers),  II.  59. 

Inseparate,  II.  28,  note. 

Insertion,  the  place  or  mode  of 
attachment  of  an  organ. 

Internode,  the  portion  of  stem  be- 
tween two  nodes,  or  joints,  1. 101 . 

Introrse,  facing  inwards,  II.  60. 

Involucel,  a  secondary  involucre. 

Involucre,    a    circle    of    bracts 
around  an  inflorescence,  II.  72, 
209. 
j   Involute,  rolled  inwards,  I.  85. 

Irregular  flowers,  II.  50. 

Joint,  same  as  node, 
i   Jointed,    separable    into    several 
pieces,  II.  166,  187. 

i    Keel,  II.  234. 
Kernel,  the  body  of  the  ovule,  or 

seed,  II.  231. 
Key,  a  winged  fruit,  like  that  of 

the  Maple,  II.  118,  Fig.  15,  7. 
Kidney- shaped,  II.  192,  Fig.  27, 1. 
Knot,  I.  116. 

Labellum,  the  odd  petal  in  the 
Orchis  family,  II.  175. 

Labiate,  same  as  bilabiate,  II.  191. 

Lanceolate,lance-shaped  (leaves) , 
260,  Fig.  35, 1. 

Latent,  hidden,  of  buds,  I.  60. 


INDEX   AND   GLOSSARY. 


375 


Lateral,  belonging  to  the  side. 

Layering,  I.  103. 

Leaf,  I.  31,  121. 

Leaflet,  a  single  part  of  a  coin- 
pound  leal'. 

Leaf -like,  same  as  foliaceous. 

Leaf-scars,  I.  57. 

Leathery,  of  the  consistency  of 
leather. 

Leaves,  1. 121;  of  seedlings,  I.  31. 

Legume,  a  two-valved,  simple  pod, 
II.  144. 

Leguminous,  belonging  to  the 
family  Leguminosa^. 

Lenticels,  I.  (33. 

Ligulate,  strap-shaped,  II.  212. 

Ligule  (grasses),  II.  270. 

Limb,  the  border  of  a  corolla. 

Linear  (leaves),  12,  Fig.  4,  B. 
1. 

Lip,  II.  1<)1 . 

Lobe,  a  division  of  a  leaf. 

Lobed,  cut  into  lobes,  not  so 
deeply  cut  as  cleft,  divided,  and 
parted. 

Loculicidal  (dehiscence) ,  split- 
ting down  through  the  back  of 
each  carpel. 

Lodicule  (grasses) ,  II.  275. 

Loment,  a  jointed  pod,  II.  187. 

Longitudinal  dehiscence,  II.  (34. 

Male,  a  flower,  or  plant,  having 
stamens  only  but  no  pistil. 

Medullary,  belonging  to  the  pith, 
I.  118. 

Micropyle,  II.  189,  229. 

Midrib,  the  main  rib  of  a  leaf. 


Mixed  inflorescence,  II.  210. 
Monadelphous,  II.  57. 
Monocotyledonous,    having    one 

cotyledon,  I.  32,  119. 
Monoecious,  with  stamens  and 

pistils  in  separate  flowers  on  the 

same  plant,  II.  53. 
Monopetalous,  the  old   form  of 

gainopetalous,  II.  27,  note. 
Monosepalous,    same    as    gamo- 

sepalous,  II.  27,  note. 
Morphology,  1. 103. 
Movements,  of  seedlings,  I.  30; 

of  stems,  I.  105. 
Multiple  fruits,  II.  149 ;  roots,  I. 

39. 

Naked,  without  covering,  II.  219. 

Napiform,  I.  40. 

Nectar,  a  sweet  secretion,  taken 

by  bees  to  make  honey,  II.  36 ; 

protection  of,  II.  37. 
Nectar-guides,  II.  37. 
Nectary,  the  receptacle  holding 

nectar. 

Needle-shaped,  I.  91. 
Nerve,  a   name  for  the  veins  of 

leaves. 
Netted-veined,    with    the    veins 

forming  a  net-work. 
Neutral  flowers,  II.  219. 
Node,  a  joint,  the  point  on  the 

stem  from  which  the  leaf  springs. 
Normal,  usual,  natural. 
Nut,  a    hard-shelled    indehiscent 

fruit,  II.  145. 
Nutlet,  the  stone  of  a  drupe :  the 

separate  divisions  of  the  ovary 


376 


INDEX   AND   GLOSSARY. 


in  Labiatfe,  Borraginaceae,  etc., 
II.  28,  192. 

Oblique,  unequal-sided  (leaves). 
Oblong  (leaves),  several  times  as 

long  as  broad. 
Obovate,  inversely  ovate. 
Obtuse,  blunt  at  the  end ;  more 

than  a  right  angle. 
Offset,  a  short,  rooting  branch, 

II.  201. 

Opposite,  I.  94. 
Order,  same  as  family,  II.  284, 

note  2. 

Organ,  a  part  which  does  a  spe- 
cial work,  I.  2. 
Organism,  I.  2. 
Orthotropous,  ovules,  II.  229. 
Ovary,  the  part  of  the  pistil  that 

holds  the  ovules,  II.  20. 
Ovate,  egg-shaped,  the  broad  end 

downwards. 
Ovule,  the  undeveloped  seed,  II.  20. 

Palet,  II.  271. 

Palmate  (leaves),  I.  123. 

Palmately-veined,  lobed,  cleft,  I. 
123. 

Panicle,  a  loose  compound  clus- 
ter, II.  209. 

Papilionaceous,  butterfly-shaped ; 
used  to  describe  the  corolla  of 
many  Leguminous  plants,  II..234. 

Pappus,  the  hairs,  cup,  crown, 
teeth,  etc.,  answering  to  the 
calyx  in  Composite,  II.  213. 

Parallel-veined,  II.  17. 

Parasitic  plants,  I.  44,  136. 


Parenchyma,  1. 112. 

Parietal  (placentation),  on  the 
sides  of  the  ovary,  II.  79. 

Parted,  divided  nearly  to  the  mid- 
rib or  base. 

Parts,  of  the  leaf,  I.  121 ;  of  the 
flower,  II.  18. 

Pedicel,  the  stalk  of  each  flower 
in  a  flower-cluster,  II.  80,  207. 

Peduncle,  a  flower-stalk,  either  of 
a  single  solitary  flower  or  of  a 
whole  cluster,  II.  80,  207. 

Peltate,  shield-shaped,  28,  Fig.  5, 
5. 

Pendulous  ovules,  II.  163. 

Perennial,  lasting  from  year  to 
year,  I.  42. 

Perfect  (flower),  having  both 
stamens  and  pistils. 

Perianth,  the  floral  envelopes, 
calyx  and  corolla,  II.  18;  uses 
of,  II.  43,  note. 

Perigynous,  literally,  "around 
the  ovary,"  the  stamens  and 
petals  on  the  calyx  or  on  a  re- 
ceptacular  disk,  II.  58. 

Persistent,  192,  Fig.  27,  9. 

Petal,  a  leaf  of  the  corolla,  II. 
18. 

Petaloideous,  having  colored  pet- 
als, II.  17. 

Petiole,  a  leaf-stalk,  1. 121. 

Phanerogams,  flowering  plants, 
II.  131. 

Phyllotaxy,  I.  93. 

Phyton  or  phytomer,  a  plant- 
part,  I.  44. 

Pinnate,  I.  123. 


INDEX    AND   GLOSSARY. 


377 


Pistil,  the  female  portion  of  the 
flower,  II.  19. 

Pith,  I.  113. 

Placenta,  the  part  of  the  ovary  to 
which  the  ovules  are  attached, 
11.83. 

Plaited,  or  plicate,  I.  92. 

Plumose,  feathery,  II.  275. 

Plumule,  the  first  bud  of  a  seed- 
ling above  the  cotyledons,  I.  22, 
Fig.  7,  8. 

Pod,  a  dry,  dehiscent  fruit,  II.  144. 

Pollen,  the  fertilizing  substance 
contained  in  the  anther,  II.  19, 
43 ;  growth  of  pollen-tube,  II.  33. 

Pollinium,  II.  180. 

Polycotyledonous,  having  many 
cotyledons,  I.  35. 

Polygamous,  with  perfect  and 
separated  flowers  on  the  same 
cluster. 

Polypetalous,  with  separate  pet- 
als. 

Polysepalous,  with  separate  se- 
pals. 

Pome,  II.  147. 

Prickles,  sharp  outgrowths  of  the 
bark. 

Primary  root,  I.  39;  leaves,  II. 
129. 

Prostrate,  lying  flat. 

Proterandrous,  or  protandrous, 
the  stamens  maturing  first,  II. 
160,  193. 

Proterogynous,  the  pistil  matur- 
ing first,  II.  121,  205. 

Protoplasm,  I.  140;  of  pollen- 
grain,  II.  33. 


Punctate,  dotted. 

Raceme,  II.  80,  207. 

Radiate,  having  ray-flowers. 

Radical,  coming  apparently  from 
the  root,  II.  68,  155. 

Radicle,  the  rudimentary  root  of 
the  plantlet ;  formerly  used  for 
the  rudimentary  stem,  the  cau- 
licle,  I.  22,  note  1. 

Ranked,  I.  95. 

Ray-flower,  II.  218. 

Receptacle,  the  top  of  the  flower- 
stalk,  which  holds  the  organs  of 
the  flower,  II.  20,  141 ;  the  sup- 
port of  a  head  of  flowers,  II.  224. 

Recurved,  turned  backwards. 

Reduplicate,  II.  183. 

Reflexed,  bent  backwards. 

Regular,  having  the  parts  of  each 
circle  alike  in  shape  and  size, 
II.  18. 

Respiration,  I.  137. 

Reticulated,  netted- veined. 

Retuse,  slightly  notched  at  the 
apex. 

Revolute,  rolled  backwards,  1. 92. 

Rhachis,  the  axis  of  a  compound 
leaf,  or  a  flower-cluster. 

Rhaphe,  II.  229. 

Rhizome,  a  rootstock,  I.  104. 

Rib,  one  of  the  principal  veins  of 
a  leaf. 

Rings,  on  branches,  I.  58. 

Roots,  I.  37;  of  seedlings,  I.  28, 
37 ;  growth  of  roots,  I.  45,  46. 

Root-cap,  I.  45. 

Rootlet,  small  root. 


378 


INDEX   AND   GLOSSARY. 


Boot-hairs,  I.  30,  47. 

Kootstock,  I.  104. 

Bostellum,  II.  180. 

Buncinate,  coarsely  and  irregu- 
larly cut,  the  teeth  pointing 
downwards,  II.  212. 

Burner,  I.  104 ;  II.  135. 

Sagittate,  arrow-shaped. 

Salver-shaped,  II.  98,  Fig.  12. 

Samara,  a  key-fruit,  II.  115. 

Sap,  the  juices  of  plants;  sap- 
wood,  I.  114. 

Saprophytes,  I.  137. 

Scabrous,  rough. 

Scales,  of  buds,  I.  58;  of  bulbs,  I. 
50. 

Scalloped  (leaves),  II.  192,  Fig.  27. 

Scape,  a  flower-stalk  rising  from 
the  ground,  II.  68. 

Scar,  of  the  leaf,  I.  57;  of  the  bud- 
scales,  I.  58;  of  the  flower-clus- 
ter, f.  60. 

Secondary  roots,  I.  40. 

Seed,  germination  of,  I.  15-36. 

Seedlings,  I.  15. 

Self-planting,  II.  25. 

Sepal,  a  leaf  of  the  calyx,  II.  18. 

Separated  flowers,  those  having 
stamens  or  carpels  only,  II.  106. 

Serrate,  saw-toothed,  II.  198,  Fig. 
28,2. 

Sessile,  without  any  stalk,  II.  20. 

Sheath,  of  grasses,  II.  270. 

Shield-shaped,  II.  28,  Fig.  5,  5. 

Shrub,  a  low,  woody  plant. 

Silicle,  II.  186. 

Silique,  II.  186. 


Simple,  leaf,  I.  122;  simple  pistil, 

II.  83,  144,-note. 
Smooth,  not  rough  nor  hairy. 
Solitary,  single,  II.  206. 
Spadiceous,  bearing  a  spadix,  II. 

171. 

Spadix,  fleshy  spike,  II.  169. 
Spathe,    a    bract    enwrapping   a 

flower-cluster,  as  in  Calla,  II. 

169. 

Spatulate,  shaped  like  a  spatula. 
Species,   a  collection    of   similar 

individuals,  II.  30. 
Spike,  II.  207. 

Spikelet,  of  grasses,  II.  270. 
Spindle-shaped,  I.  40. 
Spur,  any  projecting  appendage 

to  a  flower,  as  the  nectary  of 

Violet,  II.  1)2. 
Stalk,  the  stem  of  a  leaf  or  a 

flower,  1. 121. 
Stamen,  II.  18. 
Staminate,  having  stamens. 
Standard,  the  upper  petal   of  a 

papilionaceous  corolla,  II.  234. 
Starch,  I.  36. 
Stem,  the  ascending  axis  of  the 

plant,  I.  101. 
Sterile,  barren. 
Stigma,   the    part   of   the   pistil 

which  receives  the  pollen,  II.  20. 
Stigmatic, belonging  to  the  stigma. 
Stipel,  the  stipule  of  a  leaflet,  I. 

122,  note  2. 
Stipules,  the  appendages  at  the 

base    of    a    complete    leaf,    I. 

121. 
Stolon,  I.  103. 


INDEX    AND    GLOSSARY. 


379 


Stomata  (singular  stoma) ,  breath- 
ing-pores, I.  126. 

Stone-fruit,  II.  146. 

Strap-shaped,  II.  212. 

Striate,  marked  with  long  lines 
or  grooves. 

Strophiole,  II.  160. 

Structure  of  stems,  I.  111. 

Style,  the  stalk  between  the  ovary 
and  stigma,  II.  20. 

Sucker,  1. 103. 

Superior,  above  some  other  organ, 
II.  17. 

Suspended,  hanging  down. 

Sweeping-hairs  (in  Composite), 
II.  226. 

Symmetrical  flower,  having  the 
same  number,  or  its  multiple,  of 
parts  in  each  circle,  II.  18. 

Syncarpous,  with  united  carpels, 
II.  82. 

Syngenesious,  with  united  an- 
thers, II.  213. 

Systematic  Botany,  the  arranging 
and  classifying  of  plants. 

Tail,  of  anthers,  II.  222. 

Tap-root,  I.  39. 

Tendril,  a  slender  organ  used  for 
climbing,  II.  240,  Fig.  32,  1. 

Tension,  I.  109. 

Teratology,  the  study  of  mon- 
strosities, II.  278. 

Terminal,  belonging  to  the  end  of 
an  organ,  II.  205. 

Ternate,  in  threes. 

Testa,  II.  231. 

Tetradynamous,  II.  187. 


Thorn,  a  sharp  modified  branch. 

Throat,  the  portion  of  corolla 
where  the  tube  and  border  join. 

Thyrsus,  II.  119. 

Tristichous,  I.  97. 

Transpiration,  I.  126. 

Trumpet-shaped,  II.  253. . 

Truncate,  as  if  cut  off  at  the 
top. 

Trunk,  the  main  stem  of  a  tree. 

Tube,  the  tubular  portion  of  a 
corolla,  calyx,  or  united  sta- 
mens. 

Tuber,  I.  105;  11.80. 

Tubular,  long  and  hollow. 

Twining,  stems,  I.  103. 

Type,  the  plan,  the  ideal  pattern. 

Typical,  illustrating  the  charac- 
ters of  any  species,  genus,  etc. 

Umbel,  II.  208. 

Unsymmetrical  flowers,  not  hav- 
ing the  same  number,  or  its 
multiple,  of  parts  in  each  cir- 
cle. 

Valve,    one    of   the    pieces   into 

which  a  pod  splits;  a  door,  II. 

79,  202. 
Valvate,  opening  by  valves,  val- 

vate  aestivation,  II.  47,  183. 
Variety,  a  sub-species. 
Veins,  the  small  ribs  of  leaves. 
Venation,  the  veining  of  leaves, 

I.  123. 

Ventral  suture,  II.  228. 
Vernation,    the    arrangement  of 

leaves  in  the  bud,  I.  92. 


380 


INDEX   AND   GLOSSARY. 


Versatile,  attached  so  as  to  swing 

freely,  II.  60. 

Verticil,  a  whorl  of  leaves. 
Vexilliim,  II.  234. 
Vine,  a  creeping,  twining  plant. 

Wavy    (margin),   II.   28,   Fig.  5, 

5. 
Wheel-shaped,  II.  250,  Fig.  34, 

1. 


Whorl,  a  circle  of  leaves,  bracts, 

etc. 
Whorled,  with  leaves  in  circles, 

I.  94. 

Wind-fertilization,  II.  103,  131. 
Wing,  of  seed,  II.  116;  wings  of 

papilionaceons  corolla,  II.  234. 
Wood,  I.  118. 
Woolly,   clothed  with  thick,  soft 

hairs. 


INDEX   OF   PLANTS. 


Abutilon  striatum,  II.  47-50,  57, 
58,  59,  295. 

Acer  dasycarpum,  II.  117;  plata- 
noides,  II.  117,  316,  Fig.  15 ;  see 
also  Norway  Maple;  rubrum, 

I.  90,  Fig.  19 ;  II.  116 ;  see  also 
Red  Maple. 

^Esculus    Hippocastanum,    I.  54; 

II.  119,  317,  Fig.  16;    see  also 
Horsechestnut. 

Agropyrum   repens,  II.  274,  Fig. 

37,  C. 

Alder,  II.  102,  109,  110,  111. 
Almond,  I.  25,  2(i. 
Almond  tribe,  II.  136. 
Alopecurus  pratensis,  II.  272,  Fig. 

37,  A. 

Althea,  II.  50. 
Amaryllidacese,  or 
Amaryllis  family,  II.  18,  172,  246, 

290. 

Amelanchier,  II.  137. 
Auacharis  Canadensis,  I.  133. 
Andromeda,  II.  248. 
Anemone,  II.  56,  69,  70-73,  81,  83, 

159,  206,  300,  Fig.  8. 
Anemonella  thalictroides,  II.  77. 
Antennaria,  II.  220  222,  348. 


Anthoxanthum  odoratum,  II.  269- 

271,  365,  Fig.  37,  D. 
Apios  tnberosa,  II.  233. 
Apocynacese,  II.  263,  266,  363. 
Apocynum,   II.  263-266,  363,  Fig. 

36. 
Aquilegia  Canadensis,  II.  155-159, 

325,  Fig.  22;  vulgaris,  II.  151. 
Apple,  I.  46,  69;  II.  134-137,  141, 

142,  151,  281,  320,  367,  Fig.  18. 
Aracese,  II.  171,  331. 
Aralia  nudicaulis,  II.  161-163,  328. 
Araliacese,  II.  162,  328. 
Arbor  Vitse,  II.  128. 
Arissema  triphyllum,  II.  167-172, 

207,  208,  280,  331,  Fig.  23. 
Arum  family,  II.  171;  maculatum, 

II.  172;  Water  Arum,  II.  171. 
Asdepiadacese,  II.  258,  266,  361. 
Asclepias,  II.  359-263,  361,  Fig.  35; 

see  also  Milkweed. 
Ash,  1.76;  11.145. 
Aster,  II.  208,  220. 
Azalea,  II.  50-53,  64,  90,  296. 

Balm-of-Gilead,  I.  84-88,  92,  Fig. 

17. 

Barberry,  II.  165-167,  207,  276,  330. 
381 


382 


INDEX    OF   PLANTS. 


Bean,  I.  18-21,  37,  41,  46,  103,  108, 
111,  Fig.  7;  II.  227-232,  233; 
Kidney-Bean,  240. 

Bedstraw,  II.  251. 

Beech,  I.  67,  71-80,  81,  86,  87,  88, 
92,  95,  96,  98,  100,  125,  Fig.  15; 
II.  102,  112. 

Beech-Drops,  I.  137 ;  II.  248. 

Beet,  I.  41,  42,  Fig.  11. 

Beggar's  Lice,  II.  194. 

Begonia  family,  II.  55,  58,  74,  83, 
85,  279,  297. 

Begonia  semperflorens,  II.  53-56,    j 
58,  59,  64,  83,  85,  106,  183,  279, 
297,  Fig.  6. 

Begoniacese,  II.  297 ;  see  also  Be- 
gonia family. 

Berberidacex,  II.  153,  166,  330. 

Berberis  vulgaris,  II.  165-167, 
330. 

Betulae,  II.  108. 

Birch,  I.  63;  II.  102,  280;  Paper 
Birch,  I.  115;  II.  108,  109,  111; 
Birch  tribe,  II.  108. 

Black  Alder,  I.  95. 

Blackberry,  II.  137,  141,  142,  148. 

Black-eyed  Susan,  II.  218,  345; 
see  also  Rudbeckia. 

Bloodroot,  II.  65,  66,  70,  77-79,  84, 
145,  232,  303,  Fig.  9. 

Blueberry,  II.  248. 

Blue-eyed  Grass,  II.  245. 

Blue  Flag,  II.  243-245,  355,  Fig.  33. 

Bluets,  II.  96,  309 ;  see  also  Inno- 
cence. 

Borage  family,  or 

Borraginacess,  II.  194,  195,  258. 

Bouvardia,  II.  98. 


Bright-Eye,  II.  96;  see  also  Inno- 
cence. 

Bryophyllum,  II.  279. 

Buckwheat,  II.  203. 

Bunchberry,  II.  163. 

Bur-Marigold,  II.  226. 

Bush-Honeysuckle,  II.  248-251, 
358. 

Buttercup,  II.  69,  148,  151,  152- 
154,  156,  158,  159,  209,  281,  324, 
Fig.  21. 

Butterfly-Weed,  II.  259-263,  361, 
Fig.  35. 

Calla,  II.  171. 

Caltha  palustris,  II.  44,  73,  74,  75, 

76,  83,  84,  144,  278,  301 ;  see  also 

Marsh-Marigold . 
Caprifoliacese,   II.  163,  250,  335, 

358. 
Capsella  Bursa-Pastoris,  II.  185- 

187,  334,  Fig.  26. 
Carrot,  I.  41^3,  50,  Fig.  11. 
Carya,  II.  114. 
CaryophyllacesB,  II.  86,  189,  190, 

335. 

Cerastium  vulgatum,  II.  189. 
Checkerberry,  II.  52. 
Cherry,  I.  69,  88-90,  95;  II.  133- 

138,  141,  146,  211,  322,  367,  Fig. 

18 ;  Double  Cherry,  II.  137,  138, 

278;    Wild  Cherry,  II.  80,  137, 

207. 
Chestnut,  I.  117,  118 ;  II.  103,  112, 

145,  151. 

Chick  weed,  II.  86, 187-190, 230, 335. 
Chrysanthemum  Leucanthemum, 

II.  216-218,  219,  344,  Fig.  31. 


INDEX   OF   PLANTS. 


383 


Claytonia  Virginica,  II.  80,  304; 

see  also  Spring-Beauty. 
Clematis,  I.  108;  11.183. 
Clintonia,  II.  246. 
Clover,  II.  211,  236;  Red,  1. 18,  30, 

103;  II.  209,  237,  352;  White,  I. 

103;  11.238. 
Columbine,   II.  155-159,  278,  335, 

Fig.  22;  Garden-Columbine,  II. 

157. 

Composite,  or 
Composite    family,    II.   211,  212- 

226,  343-350. 
Cone-Flower,  II.  218-220,  345 ;  see 

also  Rudbeckia. 
Conifers,  II.  125,  131,  319. 
Convolvulacese,  or 
Convolvulus  family,  II.  253,  254, 

359. 
Convolvulus   sepium,  II.  253-255, 

256,  258,  359. 

Coptis  trifolia,  I.  104;  II.  71. 
Corn,  see  Indian  Corn. 
CornacesB,  or 
Cornel  family,  II.  162. 
Cornel,  II.  163,  211. 
Cornus  florida,  II.  162,  163. 
Cork  Oak,  II.  15. 
Corydalis  glauea,  II.  159-161,  232, 

326. 

Coryleae,  II.  108. 
Cotton-Plant,  I.  5 ;  II.  232. 
Couch-Grass,  II.  274,  Fig.  37,  C. 
Cow-Lily,  II.  269. 
Cowslip,  II.  301. 
Cranberry,  II.  248. 
Cress  family,  II.  186,  187,  231 ;  see 

also  Crucifene. 


Crocus  nudiflorus,  II.  13;  sativus, 
II.  12;  vernus,  I.  51, 105;  II.  11- 
14,  16,  17,  19,  62,  85,  289,  Fig.  4. 

Crowfoot  family,  II.  76,  140,  145, 
152, 153 ;  see  also  Ranunculaceas. 

Cruciferse,  1. 109 ;  II.  186,  231,  334. 

Cupuiiferw,  II.  108,  313. 

Cydonia  Japonica,  II.  134. 

Cynoglossum  officinale,  II.  194. 

Cyperacese,  II.  275. 

Cypripedium  acaule,  II.  172-182, 
281,  332. 

Cytisus  Laburnum,  II.  236,  237. 

Dandelion,  I.  110;  II.  51,  110,  209, 

212-216,  218,  219,  225,  232,  343, 

Fig.  30. 

Daffodil,  II.  15. 
Deerberry,  II.  248. 
Dicentra  Canadensis,  II.  160. 
Dielytra,  II.  160. 
Dipsaceae,  II.  223. 
Diervilla  trifida,  II.  248-251,  358; 

Japonica,  II.  249. 
Dodder,  II.  255. 

Dogbane,  II.  263-266,  363,  Fig.  36. 
Dogbane  family,  II.  263,  266 ;  see 

also  Apocynacese. 
Dog-Tooth  Violet,  II.  98-100,  311, 

Fig.  13. 

Dogwood,  Flowering,  II.  82. 
Double  Cherry,  II.  137,  138,  278. 
Drosera,  I.  137. 
Dutchman's  Breeches,  II.  160. 

Echinospermum  Lappula,  II.  194 ; 

Virginicum,  II.  195. 
Elder,  II.  248. 


384 


INDEX   OF    PLANTS. 


Elm,  American,  I.  72,  80-84,  87, 

88,  92,  95,  98,  111,  314,  Fig.  16; 

II.  66,  114,  280,  341. 
English  Plantain,  II.  204. 
Epigaea  repens,  II.  52,  87-91,  101, 

248,  307 ;  Fig.  10. 
Ericaceae,  II.  52,  90,  296,  307,  356. 
Erigeron  bellidifolius,  II.  220,  346. 
Erodium,  II.  26. 
Erythronium  Americanum,  II.  98- 

100,  311,  Fig.  13. 
Eucalyptus,  I.  132,  133. 
Evening-Primrose  family,  II.  47; 

see  also  Onagracese. 
Evergreens,  II.  104. 
Everlasting,  Plantain-Leaved,  II. 

220,  234,  348. 

Fagus  sylvatica,  var.  purpurea,  I. 

71;  see  also  Beech. 
Fig,  II.  151. 
Figwort  family,  II.  196;  see  also 

Scrophulariacese. 
Field-Sorrel,  II.  200-203,  340,  Fig. 

29. 

Flax,  I.  5,  18,  25,  26,  114. 
Forget-me-not,  II.  195,  210. 
Forsythia,  I.  69. 
Four-o'clock,  I.  25,  26. 
Fragaria  Virginiana,  II.  135,  323 ; 

see  also  Strawberry. 
Freesia,  II.  15. 
Fringed    Polygala,    II.    163-165, 

329. 
Fuchsia  coccinea,  II.  46, 47,  48,  58, 

183,  294. 

FumariacesB,  or, 
Fumitory  family,  II.  160,  326. 


Galanthus  nivalis,  IL  14,  290;  see 
also  Snowdrop. 

Galium,  II.  251,  252. 

Garden-Nasturtium ;  see  Nastur- 
tium. 

Geraniacese,  or, 

Geranium  family,  II.  29,  32,  291, 
293. 

Geranium,  see  House-Geranium. 

Gill,  II.  190;  see  also  Ground-Ivy. 

Ginseng  family,  II.  1(52. 

Gleditschia,  II.  243. 

Gold-Thread,  I.  104 ;  II.  71. 

Golden  Ragwort,  II.  222,  349. 

Graminex,  II.  273,  274,  275,.  365. 
Fig.  37. 

Grape,  II.  151. 

Grass  family,  11.269-275;  see  also 
GraminesR. 

Greenbriar,  II.  246. 

Ground-Ivy,  II.  190-194,  336;  Fig. 
27. 

Ground-Nut ,  II.  233. 

Gymnosperms,  II.  124,  132. 

Hawthorn,  II.  137. 

Hazel,  II.  102, 108,  110, 112;  Hazel 

tribe,  II.  108,  248. 
Heath  family,  II.  52,  64,  90. 
Hedge-Bindweed,  II.  253-255. 
Heliotrope,  II.  195. 
Hellebore,  II.  71. 
Hemp,  I.  114. 
Hepatica  triloba,  II.  65-76,  83, 152, 

281,  299,  Fig.  8. 
Hibiscus,  II.  50. 
Hickory,  II.  114. 
Hierochloe,  II.  272. 


INDEX   OF   PLANTS. 


385 


High-bush  Cranberry,  II.  250. 

Hobble-Bush,  II.  163,  211,  251. 

Honey-Locust,  II.  243. 

Honeysuckle,  II.  163,  248. 

Honeysuckle  family,  248,  250,  251, 
252. 

Hop,  II.  Ill,  163. 

Hop-Hornbeam,  II.  110,  111,  112. 

Hornbeam,  II.  102,  110,  111,  112. 

Horsechestnut,  I.  25,  26,  54-68,  70, 
72,  78,  94,  100,  Fig.  13;  II.  24, 
63,  119-124,  210,  317,  Fig.  16. 

Hound's  Tongue,  II.  194. 

House-Geranium,  II.  21-26,  27,  39, 
41,  48,  51,  57,  58,  62,  80,  183, 
209,  293 ;  see  also  Pelargonium. 

Huckleberry,  II.  248. 

Houstouia  caerulea,  II.  96-98,  188, 
252,  309,  Fig.  12. 

Hyacinth,  I.  50;  II.  8-11,  12,  16, 
17,  19,  28,  85,  207,  288. 

Hyacinthns  orientalis;  see  Hya- 
cinth. 

Hydrangea,  II.  211,  251. 

Hypoxis  erecta,  II.  245. 

Ilex  verticillata,  I.  95. 

Indian  Corn,  I.  18,  27,  29,  30,  32- 

35,  39,  41,  47,  103,  Figs.  9,  10. 
Indian  Cucumber-Root,  II.  246. 
Indian  Pipe,  II.  248. 
Indian  Poke,  II.  246. 
Indian   Turnip,   II.   167-172,  331, 

Fig.  23;    see  also  Jack-in-the- 

Pulpit. 

Innocence,  II.  96-98,  309,  Fig.  12. 
Iridacese,  II.  17,  245,  289,  355. 
Iris  versicolor,  II.  243,  355,  Fig.  33. 


Iris  family,  II.  172,  243,  245,  355. 

Isopyrum,  II.  72. 

Ivy,  38,  40,  128,  Fig.  11. 

Japan  Quince,  II.  134. 
Jack-in-the-Pulpit,  II.  167-172, 207, 

331,  Fig.  23;  see  also  Arissema, 
Jonquil,  II.  16. 
Juylandacese,  II.  114. 
Juglans,  II.  114. 

Juniperus  Virginiaua,  II.  126. 

Kalmia  latifolia,  II.  208,  211,  246- 

248,  356. 
Kentucky  Blue-Grass,  II.  209,  273, 

Fig.  37,  B. 

Kidney-Beau,  II.  240. 
Knot-Grass,  II.  203. 

Labiatse,  190,  336. 

Laburnum,  II.  236,  237. 

Lady's  Slipper,  II.  172-182,  184, 

332,  Fig.  24. 
Lady's  Thumb,  II.  203. 
Larch,  I.  95 ;  II.  103,  125,  184. 
Larix,  II.  125 ;  see  also  Larch. 
Lathyrus  maritimus,  II.  233,  241. 
Laurel,  Mountain,  II.  246-248,  356. 
Leguminosse,  II.  144,  233-243,  350- 

355. 

Liyuliflorse,  II.  216. 
Lilac,  I.  68-71,  72,  79,  88,  90,  94, 

111,  Fig.  14 ;  II.  207, 210, 211, 277. 
LiliacesB,  or 
Lily  family,  II.  15,  17,  19,  100, 172, 

246,  287,  288,  311. 
Lily,  I.  118;  II.  15, 19;  Lily-of-the 

Valley,  II.  80. 


386 


INDEX   OF   PLANTS. 


Linden,  I.  114. 

Linnsea  borealis,  II.  249. 

Linum    usitatissum,   I.   114;    see 

also  Flax. 
Liriodendron     Tulipifera,    I.   88; 

see  also  Tulip-tree. 
Lords  and  Ladies,  II.  172. 
Locust,  II.  211,  233-236,  350. 
Lousewort,   II.  196-198,  338;    see 

also  Pedicularis. 
Lungwort,  II.  195. 
Lupine,  233,  241,  354. 
Lupinus,  see  Lupine. 
Lycopersicum  esculentum,  II.  257, 

360. 

Madder  family,  II.  98,  251. 
Magnolia  Umbrella,  I.  65-68,  72, 

88,92. 

Maianthemum  Canadense,  II.  246. 
Mallow,  II.  50, 59 ;  Indian  Mallow, 

II.  295. 

Mallow  family,  or 
Malvaceae,  II.  49,  57,  59,  86,  295. 
Maple,  I.  18,  25,  26;   II.  66,  145; 

Bird's-eye,  I.  118;  Norway,  II. 

117,  121,  183,  210,  316,  Fig.  15; 

Red,  I.  90,    Fig.  19;    II.  116; 

Sugar,  II.   116,  118;  White,  II. 

117. 

Marguerite,  I.  96,  99. 
Marsh-Marigold,  II.  44,  73-75,  76, 

301 ;  see  also  Caltha. 
May-Apple,  II.  167. 
Mayflower,  II.  87-91,  307,  Fig.  10. 
Medeola  Virginica,  II.  246. 
Medicago,  II.  242. 
Meadow-Foxtail,  II.  272,  Fig.  37,  A.   i 


Meadow-Parsnip,  II.  198-200,  209, 

211,  339,  Fig.  28. 
Meadow-Rue,  II.  74,  75,  76,  302. 
Mertensia  Virginica,  II.  195. 
Milkweed,    II.  61,  232,  259,  263, 

265,  266,  281 ;  see  also  Asclepias. 
Mint  family ;  see  Labiatse. 
Mitchella,  II.  251,  252. 
Moccason-Flower,  II.  172-182 ;  see 

also  Cypripedium. 
Mountain-Laurel,  II.  208,  211,  246- 

248,  356. 
Morning-Glory,  I.  18-32,  34,  39-41, 

103, 105,  109. 

Mouse-ear  Chick  weed,  II.  189. 
Mulberry,  II.  150,  151. 
Mustard,  II.  186. 
Myriophyllum   spicatum,   I.   133; 

verticillatum,  I.  133. 

Narcissus  poeticus,  II.  15, 16 ;  Jon- 
quilla,  II.  15,  16;  Pseudo-Nar- 
cissus, II.  15. 

Nasturtium,  Garden,  I.  26,  103, 
108,  130,  131 ;  II.  26-39,  40,  41, 
42,  51,  54,  61,  64,  83,  96,  291,  Fig. 
5;  see  also  Tropaeolum. 

Nepeta  Glechoma,  II.  190-194, 336, 
Fig.  27. 

Nightshade,  II.  257. 

Nightshade  family,  II.  257;  see 
also  SolanacesB. 

Norway  Maple,  see  Maple. 

Norway  Spruce,  I.  90-92,  Fig.  20. 

Nuphar  advena,  II.  269. 

Nutmeg,  II.  232. 

Nymphsea  odorata,  II.  266-269, 364. 

Nymphseacese,  II.  269,  364. 


INDEX    OF   PLANTS. 


387 


Oak,  I.  78,  note,  95,  117,  118;  II. 

34,    102;    Red,  II.  112-114,  313; 

White,  II.  114. 
Oak    family,    II.   108;    tribe,   II. 

108. 

Oats,  I.  18,  30,  32,  34,  47. 
Onac/racese,  II.  47,  294. 
Onion,  I.  50,  105. 
Orange-tree,  I.  95. 
Orchidacess,  or 
Orchis  family,  II.  172-182,  332. 
Orchis  mascula,  II.  181 ;    specta- 

bilis,  II.  179,  180,  181. 
Ornithogalum,  II.  246. 
Oxalis,  1. 109 ;  II.  95,  201. 
Ox-eye  Daisy,  II.  216-218, 219, 225, 

344,  Fig.  31. 

Palm,  I.  119. 

Pansy,  II.  92-94,  99. 

Papaveraceats,  II.  79,  303. 

Parsley  family,  I.  162,  200;  see 
also  Umbelliferse. 

Partridge-Berry,  II.  52,  98,  150, 
251,  252. 

Pea,  I.  18-27,  31,  34,  39,  41,  69, 
103;  II.  144,  151,  238-240,  242, 
353,  Fig.  32;  Beach-Pea,  II.  233, 
241. 

Peach,  II.  37,  146,  151. 

Pear,  II.  134,  142,  147;  tribe,  II. 
136,  139. 

Pedicularis  Canadensis,  II.  196- 
198,  338. 

Pelargonium,  II.  21,  28,  31,  40,  41, 
51,  293;  see  also  House-Gera- 
nium. 

Phaseolus  vulgaris,  II.  240,  241. 


Phlox  family,  II.  258. 

Picea  excelsa,  I.  9,  Fig.  20. 

Pine,  I.  18,  35,  118;    II.  86,   103; 

Pitch  Pine,  128-131,  319,  Fig.  17 ; 

Red  Pine,  II.  129;  White  Pine, 

II.  129. 

Pine  family,  II.  131 ;  see  also  Con- 
ifers. 

Pineapple,  II.  149,  151. 
Pink  family,  II.  85,  189,  190 ;  see 

also  Caryophyllaccae. 
Pinus,  128,  319;  see  also  Pine. 
Pisum    sativum,    238,    253,    353, 

Fig.  32 ;  see  also  Pea. 
Plantaginacese,  II.  341 ;  see  also 

Plantain  family. 
Plantago  lanceolata,  II.  204,  341. 
Plantain,   English,   I.  96,  II.  204, 

341. 

Plantain  family,  II.  205,  341.  . 
Plantain-leaved    Everlasting,    II. 

220-222,  348. 
Plum,  II.  137,  146. 
Podophyllum,  II.  167. 
Poa  pratensis,  II.  273,  Fig.  37,  B. 
Poison  Ivy,  I.  44. 
Polemoniacese,  II.  258. 
Polemonium,  II.  258. 
Polygala,  II.  95,  163-165,  329. 
Polyyalacese,  II.  165,  329. 
PolygonacesR,  II.  203,  340. 
Polygonatum,  II.  246. 
Polygonum,  II.  203. 
Pomese,  II.  139. 
Poplar,  I.  46,  72,  78,  note,  95,  111, 

114,208;  11.102,107,108. 
Poppy   family,  II.  79;    see   also 

Papaveracese. 


388 


INDEX   OF   PLAXTS. 


Populus,  II.  108 ;  balsamifera,  var. 

candicans,  I.  84,  Fig.  17. 
Portulaca  oleracea,  II.  81. 
Portulacacese,  II.  81,  190,  304. 
Potato,  II.  255-257,  Fig.  34. 
Potentilla,  II.  137,  140,  151. 
Potentillese,  II.  137,  139. 
Primrose  family,  or 
Primulacex,  II.  101,  189,  305. 
Prince's  Feather,  II.  203. 
Prunese,  II.  136. 
Prunus  Cerasus,  II.  133,  322;  see 

also  Cherry. 
Pulse  family,  II.  233-243:  see  also 

LeguminossB. 

Pumpkin,  I.  39,  41,  Fig.  11. 
Purslane,  II.  81. 
Pyrola,  II.  248. 
Pyrus  Malus,  II.  134,  320;  see  also 

Apple ;  Japonica,  II.  134. 

Quaker  Lady,  90,  309;    see  also 

Innocence. 
Quercinese,  II.  108. 
Quercus  rubra,  II.  313;   see  also 

Oak. 
Quince,  II.  142, 148 ;  Japan  Quince, 

II.  134. 

Radish,  I.  39,  41,  Fig.  11;  II.  187. 
Ragwort,  II.  222,  349. 
RanunculacesB,    II.   76,  140,  152, 

158,  229,  299-303,  323,  324,  325. 
Ranunculus  bulbosus,  II.  152-154, 

324,  Fig.  21 ;  see  also  Buttercup. 
Raspberry,  II.  137,  141,  142,  148, 

151. 
Rattan,  1. 118. 


Red  Cedar,  II.  126,  128. 
Red  Clover ;  see  Clover. 
Red  Maple ;  see  Maple. 
Rhododendron  Indicum,  II.  50-53, 

296. 

Rhus  Toxicodendron,  I.  49. 
Robinia  Pseudacacia,   I.  233-236, 

350. 

Robin's  Plantain,  II.  220,  346. 
Rosacete,  II.  29,  136-140,  229,  320- 

324 ;  see  also  Rose  family. 
Rose,  I.  86;  II.  136-140,  141,  277, 

Fig.  20. 
Rose  family,  II.  58,  136-140,  145, 

158,  281 ;  tribe,  II.  136,  139,  320, 

322. 

Rosese,  II.  139. 
RubiacesB,  II.  251,  252,  309. 
Rubise,  II.  138. 
Rudbeckia  hirta,  II.  211,  218-220, 

345. 

Rue;  see  Meadow-Rue. 
Rue-Anemone,  II.  77. 
Rumex  acetosella,  II.  200-203,  340, 

Fig.  29. 

SaUcacese,  II.  107,  312. 

Salix,  II.  104-108,  312,  Fig.  14. 

Salvia  splendens,  II.  193,  194. 

Sanguinaria  Canadensis,  II.  77- 
79,  303,  Fig.  9;  see  also  Blood- 
root. 

Sarsaparilla,  Wild,  II.  161-163 
328. 

Sapindacese,  II.  119,  316,  317. 

Savin,  II.  126, 127. 

Saxifragacese,  or 

Saxifrage  family,  II.  140,  251. 


INDEX   OF    PLANTS. 


389 


Scabious,  II.  223. 

Scilla,  II.  15. 

Scrophulariacese,  II.  1%,  198,  338. 

Sedge,  I.  95. 

Sedge  family,  II.  275. 

Senecio  aureus,  II.  222,  349. 

Sensitive  plant,  I.  110. 

Shad-bush,  II.  137. 

Shepherd's  Purse,  II.  183,  185-187, 

207,  334,  Fig.  26. 
Sisyrinchium,  II.  245. 
Skunk-Cabbage,   II.   (55,  168,  169, 

170,  171,  280. 
Smilaeina,  II.  246. 
Snowdrop,  I.  5 ;  II.  14-18,  19,  23, 

46,  58,  64,  85,  290,  Fig.  4. 
Xolniiacese,  II.  255,  360. 
Solatium  tuberosum,  II.  255-257, 

Fig.  34;  nigrum,  II.  257. 
Solomon's  Seal,  II.  65,  80,  246. 
Sorrel,  Field,  II.  200-203,  230,  340, 

Fig.  29. 

Spir?ea,  II.  136-138,  141,  144,  151. 
Spring-Beauty,  II.  80-81,  85,  304. 
Spruce,  I.  118;  Norway,  II.  90-92, 

Fig.  18 ;  Black,  I.  92. 
•Star-Flower,  II.  100,  305. 
Star-Grass,  II.  245. 
Star-of-Bethlehem,  II.  246. 
Stellaria  media,  187-190,  335;  see 

also  Chickweed. 
Stickseed,  II.  194. 
Stock,  II.  186. 
Strawberry,   I.   104;    II.  135,  136, 

142, 148, 149, 151, 323, 367,  Fig.  19. 
Sundew,  I.  137. 
Sunflower,  I.  18-26,  31,  34,  37,  41, 

47,  103,  Fig.  6. 


Sweet  Buckeye,  I.  58,  note. 
Sweet  Potato,  I.  40,  41,  42. 
Sweet-Vernal  Grass,  II.  269-272, 

365,  Fig.  37,  D. 
Symplocarpus    foetidus,    II.    168, 

280;  see  also  Skunk-Cabbage. 
Syringa  vulgaris ;  see  Lilac,  I.  68. 

Tansy,  II.  224. 

Taraxacum  officinale,  II.  212-216, 
343,  Fig.  30;  see  also  Dandelion. 

Taxus  Canadensis,  II.  127. 

Tear-Thumb,  203. 

Teasel,  II.  223. 

Tecoma  radicans,  I.  44. 

Thalictrum  anemonoides  ;  see 
Anemonella;  dioicum,  II.  74, 
302. 

Thaspium  aureum,  II.  199. 

Thuja  occidentals,  II.  128. 

Tilia  Americana,  1. 114. 

Tomato,  II.  257,  360. 

Tobacco,  1.  96,  97. 

Touch-me-not,  II.  95. 

Trailing  Arbutus,  II.  52,  87-91, 
307,  Fig.  10. 

Trientalis  Americana,  II.  100,  305. 

Trifolium,  II.  237,  352;  see  also 
Clover. 

Trillium,  II.  15,  23,  276. 

Tropseolum  majus,  II.  26,  28,  31, 
32,  35-39,  41,  42,  51,  61,  64,  80, 
83,  122,  193,  291;  see  also  Nas- 
turtium. 

Trumpet  Creeper,  I.  44. 

Tubuliflorae,  II.  216. 

Tulip,  II.  3-8,  9,  10,  11,  12,  15,  16, 
17,  19,  20,  23,  58,  64,  70,  83,  85, 


390 


INDEX   OF   PLANTS. 


177,  182,  184,  206,  209,  287,  Figs. 

I,  2,  3. 

Tulipa ;  see  Tulip. 
Tulip-tree,  I.  88,  92. 
Turnip,  I.  40,  Fig.  11. 

Umbelliferse,  II.  162,  191,  198,  199r 

200,  209,  339. 
Ulmus  Americana,   114,  314;  see 

also  Elm. 
Urticacess,  II.  115,  314. 

Verbena,  II.  195. 

Verbenaceie,  II.  195. 

Veratrum  viride,  II.  246. 

Vervain,  II.  195. 

Vetch,  II.  233,  241. 

Viburnum,   II.  248;    lantanoides, 

II.  163,  211,  251 ;  Opulus,  II.  250. 
Vicia,  II.  233. 

Viola  cucullata,  II.  91-96,  308,  Fig. 

11;    tricolor,   II.  93;    see    also 

Pansy. 
Violacese,  II.  308;  see  also  Violet 

family. 
Violet,  II.  44,  57,  60,  61,  145, 151 ; 

Blue  Violet,  11.91-96, 308,  Fig.  11. 


Violet  family,  II.  96,  229,  308. 

Walnut,  II.  102,  114. 

Walnut  family,  II.  114. 

Water-Lily,  II.  266-269,  276,  364. 

Weigelia,  II.  249,  250. 

Wheat,  I.  18,  30,  33-36. 

Whiteweed,  II.  216;  see  also  Ox- 
eye  Daisy. 

Wild  Cherry;  see  Cherry. 

Wild  Lily-of-the- Valley,  II.  246. 

Wild  Sarsaparilla,  II.  161-163,  328. 

Willow,  I.  114;  II.  34,  102,  103, 
104-108,  208,  236,  280,  312,  Fig. 
14. 

Willow  family,  II.  107;  see  also 
Salicacese. 

Wind-Flower ;  see  Anemone. 

Wistaria,  II.  233. 

Wood-Anemone;  see  Anemone. 

Wood-Betony,  II.  338;  see  also 
Pedicularis. 

Yew,  II.  127,  131. 

Zizia  aurea,  II.  198-200,  211,  339, 
Fig.  28. 


SIXTY   FAMILIES    OF    FLOWERING   PLANTS. 

THIS  chart  is  intended  as  an  aid  for  beginners  in  classifying 
plants.  These  sixty  families  contain  2475  species  belonging  to 
684  genera,  or  about  four-fifths  of  all  the  species  and  three-fourths 
of  all  the  genera,  to  be  found  in  the  sixth  edition  of  the  Manual 
of  the  Flora  of  the  Northern  United  States.  The  families  unrepre- 
sented in  this  chart  can  be  traced  to  their  proper  group,  and  will 
be  found  in  this  group,  without  much  difficulty,  by  the  aid  of  the 
synopsis  in  the  Manual. 

Of  course,  in  a  plan  so  very  general,  numerous  exceptions  must 
be  expected.  The  families  cannot  be  arranged  in  a  single  series  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  show  many  relationships;  for  their  connec- 
tions ramify  in  all  directions,  and  can  only  be  represented  by  a 
tree.  The  chart  must  be  regarded  as  an  aid  in  arranging  plants 
into  groups  of  families,  which  are  natural  in  so  far  as  they  repre- 
sent a  real  attempt  at  classification  which  shall  have  some  relation 
to  descent. 

The  chart  lollows  the  arrangement  of  Gray's  Manual,  with  few 
exceptions.  The  Gymnosperms  are  no  longer  a  subclass  of  the 
Dicotyledons,  but  are  placed  in  a  separate  class  at  the  end.  This 
is  on  account  of  their  close  relationship  with  the  higher  orders  of 
Cryptogams,  which  would  follow,  were  we  to  pursue  the  classifica- 
tion further.  German  authors  group  the  apetalous  plants  with  the 
polypetalous  families.  Teachers  who  care  to  use  this  system,  of 
classification  will  find  it  in  Goebel's  Outlines,  and  a  study  of  the 
orders,  following  Goebel  with  some  changes,  in  Douglas  Campbell's 
Structural  Botany.1 

Two  families  have  their  places  altered,  merely  for  convenience 
in  grouping,  —  Polygalacece  and  Plantaginacece.  The  rest  of  the 
arrangement  follows  the  Manual. 

1  Structural  Botany.     By  Douglas  Campbell.     Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston,  1891. 

391 


SIXTY   FAMILIES   OF 


1.=  leaves;  fl.  =  flowers;  s.=  sepals;  p.  =  petals;  st.  =  stamens;  ov.  =  ovary; 


POLYPETALOUS. 


G  AMOPET  ALOUS 


olj 

zaj  J 


APET  ALOUS. 


PETALOIDEOUS. 


L.    I    SPADICEOUS 

o  ! 

°    ^GLUMACEOUS-"- 

GYMIVOSPEITMS 


Latin  Name.       Common  Name. 

s 

Ranunculaceae  . 

Crowfoot. 

Berberidaceae. 

Barberry. 

Nymphaeaceae  . 
Papaveraceae. 

Water-Lily. 

Poppy. 

Fumariaceae. 

Fumitory. 

COROLLA  AND  STAMENS 

Cruciferae. 

Cress. 

UNDER  TH 

E  OVARY             < 

Violaceae. 

Violet. 

(HYPOGYNOUS). 

Caryophyllaceae. 
Portulacaceae  . 

Pink. 
Portulaca. 

Hypericaceae. 

St.  John's-wort. 

1 

Malvaceae. 

Mallow. 

Geraniaceae. 

Geranium. 

Polygalaceae. 

Polygala. 

COROLLA  AND  STAMENS 

"     ^Sapindaceae. 
Leguminosae. 

Soapberry. 
Pulse. 

AROUND   T 

HE  OVARY 

Rosaceae. 

Rose. 

(PERIGYNOUS). 

Saxifragaceae. 

Saxifrage. 

Crassulaceas. 

Orpine. 

COROLLA  AND  STAMENS 
ON  TOP  OF  THE  OVARY        ^ 

(EPIGYNOUS). 

f  Onagraceae. 
Umbelliferae. 
Araliaceae. 
.  Cornaceae. 

Evening  Primrose. 
Parsley. 
Aralia. 
Cornel. 

' 

Caprifoliaceae. 

Honeysuckle. 

Rubiaceae. 

Madder. 

OVARY  INFERIOR. 

Compositae. 

Composite. 

Lobeliaceae. 

Lobelia. 

. 

Campanulaceae. 

Campanula. 

( 

r  !  Ericaceae. 

Heath. 

Primulaceae  . 

Primrose. 

Apocynaceae. 
Asclepiadaceae. 

Dogbane. 
Milkweed. 

COROLLA 

Gentianaceae. 

Gentian. 

OVARY     _> 
SUPERIOR.  ^ 

REGULAR. 

Polemoniaceae. 
Borraginaceas. 
Convolvulaceae. 

Polemonium. 
Borage. 
Convolvulus. 

Solanaceae. 

Nightshade. 

,  Plantaginaceae. 

Plantain. 

COROLLA 

Scrophulariaceae. 

Figwort. 

IRREGULAR.     ' 

Verbenaceae. 

Verbena. 

V 

^ 

b     Labiatae. 

Mint. 

/ 

'  Amarantaceae. 

Amaranth. 

1 

Chenopodiaceae. 

Pigweed. 

1    FLOWERS  NOT  IN  CATKINS.  .' 

Polygonaceae. 

Buckwheat. 

Euphorbiaceae. 

Spurge. 

.  Urticaceae. 

Nettle. 

FLOWERS  IN  CATKINS. 

Juglandaceae. 
Cupuliferae. 

Walnut. 
Oak. 

[, 

Salicaceae  . 

Willow. 

/ 

f  Orchldaceae. 

Orchis. 

OVARY  INFE 

RIOR.                          < 

Iridaceae. 

Iris. 

[  Amaryllidaceas. 

Amaryllis. 

Liliaceae. 

Lily. 

OVARY  SUPERIOR. 

I 

Commelinaceae. 
Juncaceae. 

Spiderwort. 

Rush. 

{  Typhaceae. 
>  Araceae  . 

Cat-tail. 
Arum. 

„  Naiadaceae. 

Pondweed. 

Cyperaceae. 

Sedge. 

Gramineae. 

Grass. 

•  •   '  Coniferae. 

Pine. 

Members  of  this  family  belong  also  in  the  preceding  group. 


FLOWERING   PLANTS. 

fr.  =  fruit;  reg.  =  regular;  irreg.  =  irregular;  alt.  =  alternate  ;  opp.  =  opposite. 


Herbs;  fl.  usually  reg. ;  parts  all  distinct;  st.  many. 

Shrubs  and  herbs;  fl.  reg.;  parts  distinct;  st.  opp.,  few. 

Aquatic  herbs;  1.  peltate;  ovules  not  on  the  margins  of  the  carpels. 

Herbs;  fl.  reg.;  s.  fugacious;  ov.  1-celled,  with  parietal  placentae. 

Herbs;  fl.  irreg. ;  4  p. ;  6  diadelphous  et. ;  ov.  1-celled. 

Herbs;  fl.  reg.;  4  p.;  6  tetradynamous  st. ;  ov.  usually  2-celled. 

Herbs;  fl.  irreg.,  1-spurred;  ov.  1-celled,  with  3  parietal  placentae. 

Herbs;  fl.  reg;  parts  in  lives;  free  central  placenta. 

Herbs;  fl.  reg.;  2  s.,  5  p.;  ov.  1-celled,  with  ovules  from  the  base. 

Shrubs  and  herbs;  st.  in  3  bundles;  ov.  1-celled  or  several-celled. 

Shrubs  and  herbs;  fl.  reg.;  st.  many,  monadelphous;  carpels  in  a  ring. 

Chiefly  herbs;  parts  in  rives;  carpels  sometimes  3. 

Herbs;  fl.  irreg.;  st.  6,  monadelphous  or  diadelphous;  ov.  2-celled,  2-seeded. 

Trees  and  shrubs;  st.  on  a  fleshy  disk;  ov.  2  to  3-celled;  seeds  exalbuminous. 

Plants  with  papilionaceous,  rarely  reg.,  corolla;  fr.  a  legume. 

Plants  with  reg.  11.;  1.  alt.,  with  stipules;  st.  many. 

Shrubs  or  herbs;  like  Kosaceae,  but  with  opp.  as  well  as  alt.  leaves,  and  no  stipules. 

Succulent  herbs;  fl.  symmetrical;  carpels  generally  distinct. 
Herbs;  fl.  reg. ;  parts  in  fours;  calyx  valvate ;  corolla  convolute. 
Plants;  fl.  reg.,  in  umbels;  parts  in  fives,  except  2  carpels;  fr.  dry,  seed-like. 
Herbs;  fl.  reg.,  in  umbels;  fr.  a  drupe. 
Trees  and  shrubs  (rarely  herbs) ;   fl.  reg.,  not  in  umbels;  fr.  a  drupe. 

Shrubs  (rarely  herbs) ;  1.  opp.,  without  stipules;  corolla  tubular  or  rotate. 

Shrubs  and  herbs;  1.  opp.,  with  stipules;  corolla  reg. 

Herbs;  fl.  in  heads,  with  involucre;  anthers  united;  fr.  an  akene. 

Herbs,  with  milky  juice;  fl.  irreg.,  scattered;  anthers  united;  seeds  many. 

Herbs,  with  milky  juice;   corolla  bell-shaped;  st.  distinct;  seeds  many. 
Shrubs  and  herbs;  fl.  reg.  or  irreg.;  anthers  usually  opening  by  pores. 
Herbs;  1.  simple;  st.  opp. ;  free  central  placenta. 
Herbs,  with  milky  juice;  1.  entire;   carpels  2,  becoming  follicles. 
Like  Apocynaceae,  but  with  anthers  connected  with  the  stigma  and  pollen  in  masses. 
Herbs;  1.  entire,  sessile;  ov.  1-celled,  with  2  parietal  placentae. 
Herbs;  1.  alt.  or  opp.;  style  3-cleft;  ov.  3-celled. 
Herbs;  rough-hairy;  1.  alt.;  ov.  4-lobed,  separating  into  nutlets. 
Twining  herbs;  1.  alt;  p.  convolute;   parts  in  fives,  except  2  carpels. 
Herbs  (rarely  shrubs)  ;  1.  alt.;  corolla  imbricated  or  valvate;  ovules  many. 
Herbs;  1.  radical;  fl.  in  spikes;  parts  in  fours;  corolla  papery,  dry. 

Herbs;  corolla  2-lipped;  st.  of  2  lengths  or  2;  ov.  2-celled,  many-ovuled. 

Shrubs  and  herbs;  1.  opp.;  ov.  not  lobed,  but  splitting  into  4  nutlets. 

Herbs;  stems  square;  1.  opp.;   corolla  2-lipped;  ov.  deeply  4-lobed. 
Weeds;  fl.  imbricated,  with  usually  3  dry  bracts;  st.  hypogynous;  ov.  1-celled. 
Ugly  greenish  weeds;  succulent;  st.  opp.  the  calyx  lobes;  ov.  1-celled. 
Herbs;  1.  alt.,  with  sheathing,  scaly  stipules;  stem-joints  swollen;  ov.  1-celled. 
Plants,  with  milky  juice;  ov.  superior,  3-celled;  ovules  pendulous.  • 
Plants,  with  reg.  calyx  and  st.  opp.  its  lobes;  seeds  exalbuminous. 

Trees;  1.  alt.,  pinnate;  monoacious;   fertile  fl.  solitary;  ov.  inferior. 

Trees  or  shrubs;  1.  alt.,  pimple;   monoecious;  fertile  fl.  solitary  or  clustered. 

Trees  or  shrubs;  dioecious;  both  kinds  of  fl.  in  catkins,  1  under  each  bract. 
Herbs;  1.  alt.;  fl.  irreg.;  st.  1  or  2,  united  to  stigma;  pollen  in  masses. 
Herbs;  1.  equitant;  fCreg.;  st.  3,  anthers  extrorse;  ov.  3-celled. 
Herbs;  1.  linear,  flat;  st.  6,  anthers  introrse;  ov.  3-celled. 

Mostly  herbs;  divisions  of  the  perianth  colored  alike;  st.  6;  ov.  3-celled. 

Herbs;  perianth  with  distinct  calyx  and  corolla;  anthers  with  separated  cells. 

Herbs;  fl.  reg. ;  sepals  6,  glumaceous;  st.  6,  rarely  3;  ov.  3-celled  or  1-celled. 
Marsh  or  aquatic  herbs;  monoecious;  1.  linear,  sessile;  no  floral  envelopes. 
Plants,  with  acrid  juice;  spadix  generally  with  a  spathe;  fr.  a  berry. 
Marsh  or  aquatic  herbs;  1.  sheathing;  perianth  herbaceous,  valvate  or  none. 

Herbs;  stem  solid  ;  1.  3-ranked,  with  closed  sheaths;  ov.  1-celled. 

Herbs;  stem  hollow;  1.  2-ranked,  with  split  sheaths;  ov.  1-celled. 

Trees  or  shrubs;  juice  resinous;  1.  needle-shaped,  evergreen;  no  floral  envelopes. 

SOU 


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